Acidic preconditioning protects against ischemia-induced brain injury

Ischemic preconditioning protects against cerebral ischemia. Recent investigations indicated that acidic preconditioning (APC) protects against ischemia-induced cardiomyocytes injury. However, it is not clear whether APC can protect against cerebral ischemia. To address this issue, C57BL/6 mice were exposed 3 times at 10-min intervals to a normoxic atmosphere containing 20% CO(2) for 5 min before being further subjected to bilateral common carotid artery occlusion. APC reversed the ischemia-induced brain injury as revealed by improved performance in passive avoidance experiments and decreased neuron loss in the hippocampal CA1 region. Consistently, both APC-treated brain slices and primary cultured neurons were more resistant to oxygen-glucose-deprivation (OGD)-induced injury, in a pH- and time-dependent manner, as revealed by reversed cell/tissue viability. In addition, the APC treatment prevented OGD-induced mitochondrial transmembrane potential loss and apoptosis, which was inhibited by the mitochondrial permeability transport pore opener atractyloside. Taken together, these findings indicated that APC protects against ischemia-induced neuronal injury. The beneficial effects may be attributed, at least in part, to decreased mitochondria-dependent neuronal apoptosis.     

Posthypoxic disturbances in glutamatergic signal transduction in rat brain neurons: correction effect of preconditioning

Severe 3-h hypobaric hypoxia was followed by impairment of Ca²⁺-mediated glutamatergic signal transduction in the posthypoxic period (no less than 72 h). This impairment manifested in changes in the calcium response to glutamate application in slices of rat brain cortex. Moderate hypoxic preconditioning prevented these disturbances developed over the first day after sever hypoxia.     

Limb remote-preconditioning protects against focal ischemia in rats and contradicts the dogma of therapeutic time windows for preconditioning

Remote ischemic preconditioning is an emerging concept for stroke treatment, but its protection against focal stroke has not been established. We tested whether remote preconditioning, performed in the ipsilateral hind limb, protects against focal stroke and explored its protective parameters. Stroke was generated by a permanent occlusion of the left distal middle cerebral artery (MCA) combined with a 30 min occlusion of the bilateral common carotid arteries (CCA) in male rats. Limb preconditioning was generated by 5 or 15 min occlusion followed with the same period of reperfusion of the left hind femoral artery, and repeated for two or three cycles. Infarct was measured 2 days later. The results showed that rapid preconditioning with three cycles of 15 min performed immediately before stroke reduced infarct size from 47.7+/-7.6% of control ischemia to 9.8+/-8.6%; at two cycles of 15 min, infarct was reduced to 24.7+/-7.3%; at two cycles of 5 min, infarct was not reduced. Delayed preconditioning with three cycles of 15 min conducted 2 days before stroke also reduced infarct to 23.0+/-10.9%, but with two cycles of 15 min it offered no protection. The protective effects at these two therapeutic time windows of remote preconditioning are consistent with those of conventional preconditioning, in which the preconditioning ischemia is induced in the brain itself. Unexpectedly, intermediate preconditioning with three cycles of 15 min performed 12 h before stroke also reduced infarct to 24.7+/-4.7%, which contradicts the current dogma for therapeutic time windows for the conventional preconditioning that has no protection at this time point. In conclusion, remote preconditioning performed in one limb protected against ischemic damage after focal cerebral ischemia.     

Hippocalcin protects hippocampal neurons against excitotoxin damage by enhancing calcium extrusion

Hippocalcin, which is a member of the neuronal calcium-sensor protein family, is highly expressed in hippocampal pyramidal cells. Recently, it was demonstrated that hippocalcin deficit caused an increase in neuronal cell death in the field CA3 of Ammon's horn (CA3) region of the hippocampus following the systemic injection of kainic acid. Treatment with kainic acid results in seizure-induced cell death in CA3. In the present study, we injected quinolinic acid, which is an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor agonist, into the hippocampal field CA1 of Ammon's horn (CA1) region in hippocalcin-knockout (-/-) mice, a procedure which mimics transient ischemia. Although significant pyknotic changes were observed at the injected site in wild-type (+/+) mice 24 h after injection, the area of pyknotic cells extended throughout the hippocampus in -/- mice. The quantification of cell numbers in Nissl-stained sections indicated that the cell damage in -/- mice was more severe than that in +/+ mice. The density of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate-biotin nick-end labeling-positive cells roughly paralleled that of Nissl-stained pyknotic cells. Primary cultures of hippocampal neurons showed that the number of surviving neurons from -/- mice after 7 days in culture was smaller than the number from +/+ mice. The measurement of intracellular calcium concentrations in single cells revealed that the calcium extrusion from -/- neurons was slower than that from +/+ neurons. The involvement of hippocalcin in the upkeep of calcium extrusion was confirmed using hippocalcin-expressing COS7 cells. These results suggest that hippocalcin plays an important role in calcium extrusion from neurons and, in turn, helps to protect them against calcium-dependent excitotoxin damage in the hippocampus.     

Ultrastructural changes in the hippocampal CA1 region following transient cerebral ischemia: evidence against programmed cell death

Summary The ultrastructural changes in the pyramidal neurons of the CA1 region of the hippocampus were studied 6 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h following a transient 10 min period of cerebral ischemia induced by common carotid occlusion combined with hypotension. The pyramidal neurons showed delayed neuronal death (DND), i.e. at 24 h and 48 h postischemia few structural alterations were noted in the light microscope, while at 72 h extensive neuronal degeneration was apparent. The most prominent early ultrastructural changes were polysome disaggregation, and the appearance of electron-dense fluffy dark material associated with tubular saccules. Mitochondria and nuclear elements appeared intact until frank neuronal degeneration. The dark material accumulated with extended periods of recirculation in soma and in the main trunks of proximal dendrites, often beneath the plasma membrane, less frequently in the distal dendrites and seldom in spines. Protein synthesis inhibitors (anisomycin, cycloheximide) and an RNA synthesis inhibitor (actinomycin D), administered by intrahippocampal injections or subcutanously, did not mitigate neuronal damage. Therefore, DND is probably not apoptosis or a form of programmed cell death. We propose that the dark material accumulating in the postischemic period represents protein complexes, possibly aggregates of proteins or internalized plasma membrane fragments, which may disrupt vital cellular structure and functions, leading to cell death.     

Energy deprivation transiently enhances rhythmic inhibitory events in the CA3 hippocampal network in vitro

Oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) leads to rapid suppression of synaptic transmission. Here we describe an emergence of rhythmic activity at 8 to 20 Hz in the CA3 subfield of hippocampal slice cultures occurring for a few minutes prior to the OGD-induced cessation of evoked responses. These oscillations, dominated by inhibitory events, represent network activity, as they were abolished by tetrodotoxin. They were also completely blocked by the GABAergic antagonist picrotoxin, and strongly reduced by the glutamatergic antagonist NBQX. Applying CPP to block NMDA receptors had no effect and neither did UBP302, an antagonist of GluK1-containing kainate receptors. The gap junction blocker mefloquine disrupted rhythmicity. Simultaneous whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings from neighboring or distant CA3 pyramidal cells revealed strong cross-correlation of the incoming rhythmic activity. Interneurons in the CA3 area received similar correlated activity. Interestingly, oscillations were much less frequently observed in the CA1 area. These data, together with the observation that the recorded activity consists primarily of inhibitory events, suggest that CA3 interneurons are important for generating these oscillations. This transient increase in inhibitory network activity during OGD may represent a mechanism contributing to the lower vulnerability to ischemic insults of the CA3 area as compared to the CA1 area.     

Transient enhancement of inhibitory synaptic transmission in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons after cerebral ischemia

Pyramidal neurons in hippocampal CA1 regions are highly sensitive to cerebral ischemia. Alterations of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission may contribute to the ischemia-induced neuronal degeneration. However, little is known about the changes of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the hippocampus following reperfusion. We examined the GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in CA1 pyramidal neurons 12 and 24 h after transient forebrain ischemia in rats. The amplitudes of evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) were increased significantly 12 h after ischemia and returned to control levels 24 h following reperfusion. The potentiation of eIPSCs was accompanied by an increase of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) amplitude, and an enhanced response to exogenous application of GABA, indicating the involvement of postsynaptic mechanisms. Furthermore, there was no obvious change of the paired-pulse ratio (PPR) of eIPSCs and the frequency of mIPSCs, suggesting that the potentiation of eIPSCs might not be due to the increased presynaptic release. Blockade of adenosine A1 receptors led to a decrease of eIPSCs amplitude in post-ischemic neurons but not in control neurons, without affecting the frequency of mIPSCs and the PPR of eIPSCs. Thus, tonic activation of adenosine A1 receptors might, at least in part, contribute to the enhancement of inhibitory synaptic transmission in CA1 neurons after forebrain ischemia. The transient enhancement of inhibitory neurotransmission might temporarily protect CA1 pyramidal neurons, and delay the process of neuronal death after cerebral ischemia.     

Neuroprotection of ischemic preconditioning is mediated by thioredoxin 2 in the hippocampal CA1 region following a subsequent transient cerebral ischemia

Preconditioning by brief ischemic episode induces tolerance to a subsequent lethal ischemic insult, and it has been suggested that reactive oxygen species are involved in this phenomenon. Thioredoxin 2 (Trx2), a small protein with redox‐regulating function, shows cytoprotective roles against oxidative stress. Here, we had focused on the role of Trx2 in ischemic preconditioning (IPC)‐mediated neuroprotection against oxidative stress followed by a subsequent lethal transient cerebral ischemia. Animals used in this study were randomly assigned to six groups; sham‐operated group, ischemia‐operated group, IPC plus (+) sham‐operated group, IPC + ischemia‐operated group, IPC + auranofin (a TrxR2 inhibitor) + sham‐operated group and IPC + auranofin + ischemia‐operated group. IPC was subjected to a 2 minutes of sublethal transient ischemia 1 day prior to a 5 minutes of lethal transient ischemia. A significant loss of neurons was found in the stratum pyramidale (SP) of the hippocampal CA1 region (CA1) in the ischemia‐operated‐group 5 days after ischemia‐reperfusion; in the IPC + ischemia‐operated‐group, pyramidal neurons in the SP were well protected. In the IPC + ischemia‐operated‐group, Trx2 and TrxR2 immunoreactivities in the SP and its protein level in the CA1 were not significantly changed compared with those in the sham‐operated‐group after ischemia‐reperfusion. In addition, superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) expression, superoxide anion radical ( ) production, denatured cytochrome c expression and TUNEL‐positive cells in the IPC + ischemia‐operated‐group were similar to those in the sham‐operated‐group. Conversely, the treatment of auranofin to the IPC + ischemia‐operated‐group significantly increased cell damage/death and abolished the IPC‐induced effect on Trx2 and TrxR2 expressions. Furthermore, the inhibition of Trx2R nearly cancelled the beneficial effects of IPC on SOD2 expression, production, denatured cytochrome c expression and TUNEL‐positive cells. In brief, this study shows that IPC conferred neuroprotection against ischemic injury by maintaining Trx2 and suggests that the maintenance or enhancement of Trx2 expression by IPC may be a legitimate strategy for therapeutic intervention of cerebral ischemia.     

Pretreatment with a single estradiol-17β bolus activates cyclic-AMP response element binding protein and protects CA1 neurons against global cerebral ischemia

Estradiol-17β is released from the ovaries in a cyclic manner during the normal estrous cycle in rats. During the transition from the diestrous to proestrous stage, the 17β-estradiol increases in blood circulation. We hypothesized that a higher serum level of endogenous 17β-estradiol would protect hippocampal pyramidal neurons against global cerebral ischemia via activation of the cyclic-AMP response element binding protein (CREB)–mediated signaling cascade. Furthermore, we asked if a single 17β-estradiol bolus provides protection against ischemia in the absence of endogenous estradiol. To test these hypotheses, rats were subjected to global cerebral ischemia at different stages of the estrous cycle. Ischemia was produced by bilateral carotid occlusion and systemic hypotension. Brains were examined for histopathology at 7 days of reperfusion. Higher serum levels of 17β-estradiol (at proestrus and estrus stages) correlated with increased immunoreactivity of pCREB in hippocampus and ischemic tolerance. At diestrus, when circulating gonadal hormone concentrations were lowest, the pCREB protein content of hippocampus was reduced and showed the least number of normal neurons after ischemia compared to other stages of the estrous cycle. A similar phosphorylation pattern was also observed for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and calcium–calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII) in hippocampus. The cyclic variation in ovarian hormones did not reflect phosphorylation of protein kinase B (Akt). To test the efficacy of a single bolus of 17β-estradiol before ischemia, ovariectomized rats were treated with 17β-estradiol (5/10/50 μg/kg) or vehicle (oil) and 48/72/96 h later rats were exposed to cerebral ischemia. A single 17β-estradiol bolus treatment in ovariectomized rats significantly increased CREB mRNA activation and protected CA1 pyramidal neurons against ischemia. These results suggest that an exogenous bolus of 17β-estradiol to ovariectomized rats protects hippocampus against ischemia via activation of the CREB pathway in a manner similar to the endogenous estrous cycle.     

脑缺血预处理对大鼠海马CA1区一氧化氮合酶活性和一氧化氮含量的影响

目的：观察脑缺血预处理（CIP）后大鼠海马一氧化氮合酶（NOS）活性和一氧化氮（NO）含量的变化，探讨NO在脑缺血耐受（BIT）诱导中的作用。 方法： 将140只凝闭双侧椎动脉的Wistar大鼠分为sham、CIP组、损伤性缺血组和CIP＋损伤性缺血组。夹闭双侧颈总动脉致全脑缺血3 min作为CIP，10 min作为损伤性缺血，第4组中CIP与损伤性缺血之间间隔3 d。所有动物均于末次脑缺血恢复再灌注后0 h、2 h、16 h、24 h、36 h、72 h和7 d（每个时点n=5）取海马CA1区脑组织，分光光度法检测NOS活性，硝酸还原酶法检测NO2-/NO3-含量。 结果： CIP组NOS活性和NO2-/NO3-含量于再灌注后16 h开始升高，24 h达高峰，接近sham组的1.5倍，36 h降至基础水平，其升高的持续时间短于BIT诱导的时程（1-7 d）；损伤性缺血组NOS活性和NO2-/NO3-含量的变化趋势与CIP组类似，但其峰值（24 h）超过sham组的2倍，显著大于CIP组（P<0.05）；CIP+损伤性缺血组NOS活性和NO2-/NO3-含量亦有一定程度的升高，但其峰值（24 h）明显低于损伤性缺血组(P<0.05)。 结论： CIP引起NOS活性及NO2-/NO3-含量的适度增加，参与BIT的诱导；同时CIP阻止损伤性缺血后NO的过量生成所致的细胞毒性作用可能是其诱导BIT的另一途径。     

亚低温后适应对树鼩局部脑缺血海马CA1区神经元的保护机制

目的： 观察亚低温后处理(HPC)对树鼩局部脑缺血后不同时间海马CA1区血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）表达及神经元缺失的影响,探讨亚低温后适应保护脑缺血后海马CA1区神经元的可能机制。方法：建立光化学诱导树鼩脑缺血模型,于缺血后6h采用局部恒温控温装置使脑温降低并维持亚低温(31-32 ℃)状态1 h。用免疫组化法及图像分析仪测定海马CA1区VEGF表达的改变;计数海马神经元并观察其超微结构变化。结果：与常温组相比,亚低温后适应组海马CA1区VEGF表达在24 h时增加而72 h时明显下降（P＜0.01）;24 h时神经元坏死减少,72 h时坏死细胞增多,缺血侧超微结构呈现相同变化。结论：在脑缺血后早期VEGF的表达可能与其直接发挥对神经元细胞的保护作用有关,亚低温后适应对脑缺血的保护作用在脑缺血的早期有明显意义,而在缺血的晚期则可能加重脑缺血的损伤,低温后适应脑保护的意义在于延长脑缺血治疗时间窗。     

NO参与缺血预处理对大鼠骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的研究缺血预处理(IPC)对大鼠骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用及一氧化氮(NO)是否参与此保护作用。方法采用Wistar雌性大鼠,在左后肢跟部止血,同时使用血流监测仪测股四头肌的血流量,调整止血带的松紧程度,使血流量控制在上止血带前的30%。30只大鼠随机分成3组,分别为缺血再灌注组(n=10)、缺血预处理组(n=10)、缺血预处理+NAME组(n=10)。应用尼克酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸黄递酶2+2+(NADH)染色,检测股四头肌各型肌纤维横截面积,钙-腺苷三磷酸酶(Ca-ATPase)染色,观察细胞膜CaATPase分布。透射电镜观测肌细胞的超微结构变化。结果缺血再灌注组出现明显肌纤维破裂溶解,许多白细胞浸润,电镜下线粒体中含有大量空泡变性、肌纤维断裂、溶解和Z线排列整齐膜脂质过氧化物的增加。与缺血再灌注组相比,缺血预处理组显示了轻微的损害,正常的纤维和血管变形少,股四头肌各型肌纤维横2+截面积降低,细胞膜Ca-ATPase数量增加。缺血预处理+NAME组与缺血再灌注组相比没有明显改变。结论缺血预处理对大鼠骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤有明显保护作用,NO参与这一保护作用。     

远程预处理通过下调钙网蛋白高表达减轻在体大鼠心肌细胞缺血再灌注损伤

目的:研究远程预处理(remote preconditioning,RP)对在体缺血再灌注心肌的保护作用,探讨钙网蛋白(calreticulin,CRT)在远程预处理心肌细胞缺血再灌注(ischemia reperfusion,IR)损伤的作用.方法:30只成年SD大鼠,随机分成5组(n=6),分别为缺血再灌注组、缺血预处理组、远程预处理Ⅰ组、远程预处理Ⅱ组和假手术组.建立大鼠在体缺血再灌注损伤模型,观察各组缺血再灌注前后心功能变化,并检测再灌注末血清肌钙蛋白T(cardiac troponin T,cTnT)、丙二醛(malondialdehyde,MDA)、超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)的变化以及心肌组织钙网蛋白的表达.结果:远程预处理Ⅰ组心功能、cTnT、MDA、SOD值、CRT的表达与缺血再灌注组无显著差异(P>0.05);缺血预处理组、远程预处理Ⅱ组SOD值均显著高于缺血再灌注组(P<0.05),cTnT、MDA值、CRT的表达均显著低于缺血再灌注组(P<0.05).结论:远程预处理可以模拟缺血预处理的心肌保护作用;远程预处理可能通过下调钙网蛋白高表达减轻在体大鼠心肌细胞缺血再灌注损伤.     

Genistein后处理介导eNOS激活及其对缺血后神经元的保护作用

 目的 研究Genistein后处理 (Genistein Postconditioning, GPC) 对脑缺血再灌注后大鼠海马CA1区神经元的神经保护作用,及其对eNOS磷酸化水平的影响,从而揭示GPC神经保护作用可能的分子机制。方法 建立大鼠四动脉结扎全脑缺血模型,采用Western Blot技术检测大鼠海马CA1区eNOS、p-eNOS的表达;NeuN染色和TUNEL技术分别观察海马CA1区神经元的存活和凋亡样损伤。结果 1. Western Blot结果显示,与I/R组相比GPC后再灌注30min和3d p-eNOS水平显著升高,而eNOS蛋白表达在各个时间点没有明显变化。2. 激光扫描共聚焦显微镜技术结果显示,GPC组与对照组相比较,海马CA1区存活的神经元细胞明显增加,而凋亡样损伤的神经元显著减少;3. NOS抑制剂L-NAME不但有效降低p-eNOS水平,而且可显著减弱GPC诱导的神经保护作用。结论 Genistein后处理可抑制大鼠海马CA1区神经元凋亡,其机制可能与p-eNOS表达上调有关。     

银杏叶提取物预处理对VD模型大鼠海马CA1区P-GP和GLT-1表达的影响

目的:探讨银杏叶提取物(EGB761)预处理对血管性痴呆(VD)模型大鼠海马CA1区P-糖蛋白(P-GP)及谷氨酸转运体1(GLT-1)的影响。方法:大鼠分为假手术组、模型组和EGB761预处理组。EGB761预处理组在造模前7 d给予EGB761生理盐水混悬液灌胃,假手术组和模型组给予等体积的生理盐水灌胃。采用重复夹闭双侧颈总动脉(CCA)同时腹腔注射硝普钠溶液方法复制VD大鼠模型。Morris水迷宫检测大鼠空间学习记忆能力,用神经颗粒素(Ng)/P-GP和胶质细胞酸性蛋白(GFAP)/GLT-1免疫荧光双标法,观察海马CA1区神经元P-GP和胶质细胞GLT-1表达水平的变化,Western Blot技术检测VD大鼠海马区P-GP和GLT-1蛋白的表达量。结果:(1)Morris水迷宫检测显示,与假手术组相比,模型组大鼠的逃逸潜伏期(Escape latency,EL)明显延长(P0.01),而EGB761预处理组大鼠EL明显缩短(P0.01)。(2)阳性细胞计数观察到,与假手术组相比,模型组海马CA1区Ng/P-GP的阳性细胞数明显减少,GFAP/GLT-1的阳性细胞数则显著增多(P0.01),EGB761预处理组海马CA1区Ng/P-GP和GFAP/GLT-1的阳性细胞数较模型组均明显增多(P0.01)。(3)积分光密度值测定观察到,模型组和EGB761预处理组的Ng/P-GP和GFAP/GLT-1阳性细胞的IOD值较假手术组均明显增大(P0.01);EGB761预处理组的Ng/P-GP和GFAP/GLT-1阳性细胞IOD值均显著高于模型组(P0.01)。(4)Western Blot分析结果显示,模型组和EGB761预处理组大鼠海马CA1区P-GP和GLT-1蛋白表达的灰度值均比假手术组增大(P0.01),EGB761预处理组大鼠海马CA1区P-GP和GLT-1蛋白表达的灰度值均显著大于模型组(P0.01)。结论:EGB761预处理可能通过上调VD模型大鼠海马CA1区P-GP和GLT-1的表达来预防VD的发生。     

PP2, a potent inhibitor of Src family kinases, protects against hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell death after transient global brain ischemia

It has been indicated that Src family protein tyrosine kinases (SrcPTKs) potentiate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor function by phosphorylating NR2A subunits and that postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) facilitates this regulation. In this paper, we define the role of SrcPTKs in delayed neuronal damage following transient brain ischemia and explore the underlying mechanisms involved in this event. Transient global brain ischemia was induced by the four-vessel occlusion method. A specific Src family kinase inhibitor PP2 (4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyramidine) and a PP2 negative control PP3 (4-amino-7-phenylpyrazolo[3,4-d]pyramidine) were infused into rat cerebroventricule 30 min before occlusion. Hematoxylin and eosine staining showed that the number of surviving pyramidal neurons in rat hippocampal CA1 subfield increased markedly in PP2-treated rats comparing to PP3-treated groups after 5 days of reperfusion following ischemia. Additionally, immunoprecipitation and immunoblot analysis revealed that preadministration of PP2, but not PP3, attenuated not only the increased tyrosine phosphorylation of NR2A but also the enhanced interactions among Src, NR2A and PSD-95 induced by ischemia/reperfusion. In conclusion, SrcPTKs promote binding of the kinases and their substrate NR2A attributed to the scaffolding effect of PSD-95 during transient brain ischemia and reperfusion, which are responsible for the elevation of NR2A tyrosine phosphorylation and consequent delayed neuronal cell death.     

Estrogen and aging affect synaptic distribution of phosphorylated LIM kinase (pLIMK) in CA1 region of female rat hippocampus

17beta-Estradiol (E) increases axospinous synapse density in the hippocampal CA1 region of young female rats, but not in aged rats. This may be linked to age-related alterations in signaling pathways activated by synaptic estrogen receptor alpha (ER-alpha) that potentially regulate spine formation, such as LIM-kinase (LIMK), an actin depolymerizing factor/cofilin kinase. We hypothesized that, as with ER-alpha, phospho-LIM-kinase (pLIMK) may be less abundant or responsive to E in CA1 synapses of aged female rats. To address this, cellular and subcellular distribution of pLIMK-immunoreactivity (IR) in CA1 was analyzed by light and electron microscopy in young and aged female rats that were ovariectomized and treated with either vehicle or E. pLIMK-IR was found primarily in perikarya within the pyramidal cell layer and dendritic shafts and spines in stratum radiatum (SR). While pLIMK-IR was occasionally present in terminals, post-embedding quantitative analysis of SR showed that pLIMK had a predominant post-synaptic localization and was preferentially localized within the postsynaptic density (PSD). The percentage of pLIMK-labeled synapses increased (30%) with E treatment (P<0.02) in young animals, and decreased (43%) with age (P<0.002) regardless of treatment. The pattern of distribution of pLIMK-IR within dendritic spines and synapses was unaffected by age or E treatment, with the exception of an E-induced increase in the non-synaptic core of spines in young females. These data suggest that age-related synaptic alterations similar to those seen with ER-alpha occur with signaling molecules such as pLIMK, and support the hypothesis that age-related failure of E treatment to increase synapse number in CA1 may be due to changes in the molecular profile of axospinous synapses with respect to signaling pathways linked to formation of additional spines and synapses in response to E.     

The intra-arterial injection of microglia protects hippocampal CA1 neurons against global ischemia-induced functional deficits in rats

In the present study, we have attempted to elucidate the effects of the intra-arterial injection of microglia on the global ischemia-induced functional and morphological deficits of hippocampal CA1 neurons. When PKH26-labeled immortalized microglial cells, GMIR1, were injected into the subclavian artery, these exogenous microglia were found to accumulate in the hippocampus at 24 h after ischemia. In hippocampal slices prepared from medium-injected rats subjected to ischemia 48 h earlier, synaptic dysfunctions including a significant reduction of synaptic responses and a marked reduction of long-term potentiation (LTP) of the CA3-CA1 Schaffer collateral synapses were observed. At this stage, however, neither significant neuronal degeneration nor gliosis was observed in the hippocampus. At 96 h after ischemia, there was a total loss of the synaptic activity and a marked neuronal death in the CA1 subfield. In contrast, the basal synaptic transmission and LTP of the CA3-CA1 synapses were well preserved after ischemia in the slices prepared from the microglia-injected animals. We also found the microglial-conditioned medium (MCM) to significantly increase the frequency of the spontaneous postsynaptic currents of CA1 neurons without affecting the amplitude, thus indicating that MCM increased the provability of the neurotransmitter release. The protective effect of the intra-arterial injected microglia against the ischemia-induced neuronal degeneration in the hippocampus was substantiated by immunohistochemical and immunoblot analyses. Furthermore, the arterial-injected microglia prevented the ischemia-induced decline of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in CA1 neurons. These observations strongly suggest that the arterial-injection of microglia protected CA1 neurons against the ischemia-induced neuronal degeneration. The restoration of the ischemia-induced synaptic deficits and the resultant reduction of the BDNF levels in CA1 neurons, possibly by the release of diffusible factor(s), might thus contribute to the protective effect of the arterial-injection of microglia against ischemia-induced neuronal degeneration.     

Bupivacaine, but not tetracaine, protects against the in vitro ischemic insult of rat hippocampal CA1 neurons

Neuroprotective actions of local anesthetics, bupivacaine and tetracaine, against the irreversible membrane dysfunction induced by in vitro ischemia were investigated. Intracellular recordings were made from hippocampal CA1 neurons in rat brain slice preparations. Oxygen and glucose deprivation (in vitro ischemia) produced a rapid depolarization after approximately 5 min of exposure. When oxygen and glucose were reintroduced, the membrane depolarized further and reached at 0 mV: the membrane showed no functional recovery (irreversible membrane dysfunction). Pretreatment with tetracaine or bupivacaine significantly prolonged the latency of rapid depolarization. Bupivacaine, but not tetracaine, restored the membrane potential after the reintroduction of oxygen and glucose. Tetracaine and bupivacaine depressed both field postsynaptic potentials and presynaptic volleys. The drugs also reduced the dV/dt of Ca(2+)-dependent spikes and the rapid rise of [Ca(2+)](i) induced by in vitro ischemia. Compared with tetracaine, bupivacaine markedly suppressed the resting K(+) conductance and the ATP-sensitive and Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) conductances. Moreover, in the presence of tetraethylammonium (TEA), a majority of CA1 neurons impaled with Cs acetate-filled electrodes showed complete or partial recovery of the membrane potential after reintroducing oxygen and glucose. These results suggest that the neuroprotective action of bupivacaine is mainly due to the suppression of the K(+) conductances.     

The immunoglobulin light chain related protein lambda 5 is expressed on the surface of mouse pre-B cell lines and can function as a signal transducing molecule.

Abelson Leukemia Virus-transformed mouse cell lines with an early pre-B phenotype carry partially rearranged or unrearranged Ig-H genes and consequently do not express intact IgM-H protein (mu protein). Such early mu- pre-B cells express an intracellular protein complex of the pre-B cell specific 22 kDa protein lambda 5 and a 16 kDa protein designated p16. Late pre-B cell lines which carry a rearranged IgM-H chain gene in which a continuous translational reading frame has been established in the fused V-D-J element express intact mu-protein, which forms an intracellular complex with lambda 5 and p16. We show here that both the lambda 5/p16 or the mu/lambda 5/p16 complexes can be immunoprecipitated from lysates of cells surface labeled with 125I. Thus early pre-B cells express the lambda 5/p16 complex on the cell surface in the absence of mu protein, while mu+ late pre-B cells express a surface mu/lambda 5/p16 complex. To investigate a possible signal transduction function of the lambda 5/p16 and mu/lambda 5/p16 complexes on the surface of pre-B cell lines we measured the changes in intracellular free Ca2+ after treatment of cells with anti-lambda 5 or anti-mu antibodies. Two mu- early pre-B cell lines showed a rapid and transient increase in intracellular free Ca2+ when incubated with anti-lambda 5 antibodies but not when incubated with anti-mu, while the mu+ late pre-B cell line CB32 showed a rapid and transient increase in intracellular Ca2+ after incubation with anti-lambda 5 or anti-mu. These results show that both the lambda 5/p16 and the mu/lambda 5/p16 cell surface protein complexes can transduce an external signal to the inside of the cell, which implicates these complexes in the regulation of pre-B cell physiology.