Risk factors,manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of cholelithiasis in children

Cholelithiasis in children refers to cholelithiasis or choledocholithiasis in newborns, infants and adolescents, including a series of symptoms and complications related to stones. The incidence rate of cholelithiasis in children is far lower than that in adults. However, the detection rate of cholelithiasis in children has risen in recent years. The aetiology of cholelithiasis in children is complex, and the pathogenesis is still unclear. According to existing studies, cholelithiasis in children may be related to sex and hormones, obesity, drugs, haemolytic diseases, genetic factors, chemokines, abnormal biliary tract formation, ileal surgery, total parenteral nutrition and other factors. In addition, there is a large occurrence of idiopathic cholelithiasis in children with unknown aetiology. The clinical manifestations of cholelithiasis in children are not completely the same as those in adults, mainly due to the different ages and causes. At present, there is no consensus on the clinical treatment of cholelithiasis in children. Follow-up and observation, drug dissolution and surgical treatment are all treatment methods for children with cholelithiasis. This study reviewed the related literature reports of cholelithiasis in children and summarized the risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of cholelithiasis in children to improve the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of cholelithiasis in children.     

十二指肠镜联合腹腔镜治疗胆囊合并胆总管结石48例

目的 研究十二指肠镜联合腹腔镜的方法对胆囊合并胆总管结石的治疗效果.方法 选取2004年1月～2009年12月48例胆囊合并胆总管结石患者,均先行ERCP+EST,术后再行LC术治疗.结果 该组病例治疗效果良好.结论 对于胆囊合并胆总管结石患者,十二指肠镜联合腹腔镜治疗术是一种非常有效的治疗手段.     

The role of sonography in imaging of the biliary tract

Sonography is the recommended initial imaging test in the evaluation of patients presenting with right upper quadrant pain or jaundice. Dependent upon clinical circumstances, the differential diagnosis includes choledocholithiasis, biliary stricture, or tumor. Sonography is very sensitive in detection of mechanical biliary obstruction and stone disease, although less sensitive for detection of obstructing tumors, including pancreatic carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma.In patients with sonographically documented cholelithiasis and choledocholithiasis, laparoscopic cholecystectomy with operative clearance of the biliary stone disease is usually performed. In patients with clinically suspected biliary stone disease, without initial sonographic documentation of choledocholithiasis, endoscopic ultrasound or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography is the next logical imaging step. Endoscopic ultrasound documentation of choledocholithiasis in a postcholecystectomy patient should lead to retrograde cholangiography, sphincterotomy, and clearance of the ductal calculi by endoscopic catheter techniques.In patients with clinical and sonographic findings suggestive of malignant biliary obstruction, a multipass contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) examination to detect and stage possible pancreatic carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, or periductal neoplasm is usually recommended. Assessment of tumor resectability and staging can be performed by CT or a combination of CT and endoscopic ultrasound, the latter often combined with fine needle aspiration biopsy of suspected periductal tumor.In patients whose CT scan suggests hepatic hilar or central intrahepatic biliary tumor, percutaneous cholangiography and transhepatic biliary stent placement is usually followed by brushing or fluoroscopically directed fine needle aspiration biopsy for tissue diagnosis.Sonography is the imaging procedure of choice for biliary tract intervention, including cholecystostomy, guidance for percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, and drainage of peribiliary abscesses.     

Prevalence of biliary ascariasis and its relation to biliary lithiasis

Hepatobiliary ultrasound was carried out on 2224 consecutive patients at the Center for Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound and at one private diagnostic center in Mymensingh for ultrasound examination of different systems. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of biliary ascariasis and its association with other biliary diseases, specially biliary lithiasis. Data regarding the presence of stone, worm or other diseases were recorded accordingly in this prospective study. There were 952 male and 1272 female patients with an age range of 5–90 years. Biliary diseases were detected in 305 patients (13.71%), of whom 97 were male (10.19%) and 208 were female (16.35%). The most common biliary disease in both sexes was cholelithiasis (11.87%), which was found in 84 male patients (8.82%) and in 180 female patients (14.15%). Other diseases found were choledocholithiasis in 14 patients (3 males, 11 females), gall bladder mass in 9 patients (3 males, 6 females), common bile duct mass in 7 patients (4 male, 3 female) and biliary ascariasis in 10 patients (3 male, 7 female). Overall prevalence of biliary ascariasis was 0.45% (0.31% in male patients and 0.55% in female patients), and age range of patients with the condition was 6–50 years. No case of biliary ascariasis was associated with cholelithiasis or choledocholithiasis. Acute cholecystitis was associated with 8 cases (80%) of biliary ascariasis. Common sonographic findings in patients with biliary ascariasis were a single long, linear or curved echogenic structure within the bile duct, without acoustic shadowing. Other findings were gall bladder distention with sludge inside, an edematous wall and mildly dilated biliary tree. Prevalence of biliary ascariasis in the study was 0.45%, with incidence being higher in female subjects (0.55%). No correlation was found between biliary ascariasis and biliary lithiasis. Most of the cases of biliary ascariasis were associated with acute cholecystitis. We concluded that a careful search for biliary ascariasis should be considered for patients with acute acalculus cholecystitis, especially in areas in which ascariasis is endemic, such as Bangladesh.     

Oral gallstone dissolution therapies

Surgery is still the recommended and proven effective management for cholelithiasis. However, when surgery poses more risk than benefits or if surgical management is refused, oral dissolution therapy may be a helpful alternative, providing patients relief from biliary colic and preventing further formation and accumulation of gallstones while therapy is ongoing.     

Single-operator duodenoscope-assisted cholangioscopy is an effective alternative in the management of choledocholithiasis not removed by conventional methods, including mechanical lithotripsy

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: The widespread use of cholangioscopy in the management of difficult choledocholithiasis has been limited by the need for two expert operators. This report describes the use of a technique of single-operator duodenoscope-assisted cholangioscopy (SODAC) in the successful management of 75 patients with choledocholithiasis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The single-operator technique, allowing simultaneous control of both the duodenoscope and cholangioscope, was prospectively studied between June 1999 and June 2001 in the diagnosis and treatment of choledocholithiasis. RESULTS: A total of 109 SODAC procedures were conducted in 75 patients to manage choledocholithiasis. The indications were: firstly, SODAC-guided electrohydraulic lithotripsy (EHL) of stones in which conventional methods, including mechanical lithotripsy, had not been successful (52 SODAC procedures in 26 patients); and secondly, direct visualization of the biliary tree after cholangiography to assess the presence of stones (57 SODAC procedures in 49 patients). The locations and numbers of the stones, but not their size, were predictive of the number of SODAC-guided lithotripsy sessions required. All of the patients were free of stones at the end of the study period, and no complications were recorded. CONCLUSIONS: Single-operator SODAC-guided electrohydraulic lithotripsy was effective in the treatment of difficult cases of choledocholithiasis in which conventional methods had previously failed. The technique may allow increased use of cholangioscopy in the management of choledocholithiasis.     

Changes in the parameters of hepatic function in biliary lithiasis

Our study investigates liver involvement serum parameters in 71 subjects with cholelithiasis and choledocholithiasis, without primary liver diseases. As a control group 118 healthy subjects were studied. All patients have been examined for serum transaminases, alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase, total bilirubin and for liver enlargement. The results point out the presence of increased alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase levels in more than half examined patients, and in nearly half of those without hyperbilirubinemia. This fact confirms that the existence of biliary lithiasis itself (even if limited to gall-bladder, in absence of jaundice) may account for the occurrence of a subclinical cholestatic liver impairment, that should be carefully considered in long-term prognosis of these patients.     

Sonographic features of mucinous biliary papillomatosis: Case report and review of imaging findings

Because of its indolent course, high recurrence rate, and risk of malignant transformation, mucinous biliary papillomatosis is an important consideration in the differential diagnosis of bile duct obstruction. We report a case of mucinous biliary papillomatosis and review the sonographic and other imaging findings previously reported in the literature. On sonography, these tumors appear as nonshadowing intrabiliary masses that are clearly defined and associated with proximal biliary dilatation. They may be multiple and associated with mucoid sludge. The imaging findings reflect the macroscopic appearance of a doughy papilliferous tumor of a bile duct. Associated findings include cholelithiasis, choledocholithiasis, and gallbladder dysplasia. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound26:151–154, 1998.     

经内镜括约肌切开或气囊扩张治疗胆总管结石

目的：探讨经内镜括约肌切开（ＥＳＴ）和内镜乳头气囊扩张（ＥＰＢＤ）治疗胆部管结石的安全性和疗效。方法：经ＥＳＴ和ＥＰＢＤ共治疗胆总结石３２８例，其中单颗结石１７４例，２颗结石１１２例，３颗粒以上结石４２例（最多１例２０颗结石）。对于〈１０ｍｍ结石采用ＥＰＢＤ治疗，〉１１ｍｍ采用ＥＳＴ。结果：治疗成功３２３例，占９８．５％，失峁５例，其中９８例经内镜治疗后结石自然排出，２０７例采用网复或取石球囊取出     

输卵管导管联合腹腔镜治疗胆总管结石的临床体会

目的 探讨采用输卵管导管联合腹腔镜治疗胆总管结石的临床技巧。方法 回顾性分析该院2017年2月－2018年1月48例因胆总管结石行输卵管导管联合腹腔镜胆总管切开探查的患者的临床资料。结果 所有患者均在腹腔镜下成功取出并取尽胆总管内结石,一期胆总管缝合43例,放置T管引流5例;手术时间45～180 min,平均116 min。术后住院时间为6～14 d,平均8 d。术后发生胆瘘1例,保守引流9 d后痊愈;5例放置Ｔ管引流者,术后4～6周行Ｔ管造影,均无结石残留,拔除T管。术后随访3个月～１年,未见胆管狭窄及残留结石等情况发生。结论 输卵管导管联合腹腔镜治疗胆总管结石是安全、可行和有效的,娴熟的输卵管导管冲洗取石技巧、丰富的腹腔镜经验及术中细致的操作是手术成功的关键。     

Ceftriaxone‐associated biliary pseudolithiasis in children: do we know enough?

Ceftriaxone is an antibiotic agent frequently used in paediatric hospital practice for the treatment of severe bacterial infections. The use of this agent can result in cholelithiasis and/or biliary sludge, more commonly in children than in adults. This systematic review was aimed at analysing available literature concerning ceftriaxone‐associated biliary pseudolithiasis in paediatric patients, with a special emphasis on the clinical aspects. A literature analysis was performed using Medline and Embase electronic databases (articles published in English up to December 2019), with the search terms and combinations as follows:’ceftriaxone’, ‘cholelithiasis’, ‘biliary sludge’ ‘gallstones’ ‘neonates’ ‘children’ ‘clinical aspects’ ‘management’. Several case reports, case series and prospective/retrospective studies have documented a relationship between ceftriaxone treatment and biliary pseudolithiasis in the paediatric population, even though literature data regarding neonates and infants are scarce. Ceftriaxone‐associated biliary pseudolithiasis is dose‐dependent and usually asymptomatic but, sometimes, it may present with abdominal pain, nausea and emesis. Abdominal ultrasonography should be performed when this complication is suspected. Generally, ceftriaxone‐associated cholelithiasis resolves over a variable period of time (days to months) after cessation of therapy. Therefore, a conservative approach to this condition is advocated, but a prolonged follow‐up may be necessary. A personalized assessment of factors predisposing to ceftriaxone‐associated biliary pseudolithiasis before prescribing the drug can allow to minimize the risk of developing it, with significant advantages in terms of human and economic costs.     

Percutaneous management of benign biliary disease

Thiry-two patients had percutaneous drainage for benign disease of the biliary system, and in 81% of the patients the catheter could be removed. The patients' conditions were of 3 types: choledocholithiasis, biliary strictures, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Fourteen patients had balloon dilatation of strictures in the biliary tract. As in malignant disease, many patients may be managed entirely by percutaneous methods and surgery avoided, but the results with percutaneous drainage are more gratifying.     

复发型胆总管结石患者胆道微生物的特征

目的观察复发型胆总管结石患者胆道微生物的特征,分析胆道微生物对胆总管结石复发的影响。方法回顾性分析接受了经内镜逆行性胰胆管造影术术后1年随访的40例复发型胆总管结石患者(复发型组)的临床资料,以同期接受同术式术后1年随访的40例非复发型胆总管结石患者(非复发型组)为对照。观察并比较2组胆道微生物的特征,分析胆道微生物对胆总管结石复发的影响。结果复发型组和非复发型组的胆道微生物病原菌分别为37株和33株,复发型组的革兰阴性菌株数与非复发型组相同;复发型组的革兰阳性菌和真菌多于非复发型组,但比较差异无统计学意义(χ²=0.573,P=0.449);复发型组大肠埃希菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、肠球菌、痤疮丙酸杆菌占比高于非复发型组(P <0.05)。Logistic回归分析显示,大肠埃希菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、肠球菌、痤疮丙酸杆菌增殖是复发型胆总管结石的影响因子(OR均> 1,P均<0.05)。绘制受试者工作特征曲线发现,大肠埃希菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、肠球菌、痤疮丙酸杆菌检测用于预测复发型胆总管结石的曲线下面积分别为0.813、0.809、0.807、0.806,均...     

内镜下乳头括约肌小切开术联合球囊扩张术治疗胆总管结石的临床价值

目的探讨采用内镜下乳头括约肌小切开术联合球囊扩张术(sEST+EPBD)治疗胆总管结石的临床疗效及可能存在的机制。方法选取2013年1月-2017年12月因胆总管结石入住该院的200例患者,分为单纯内镜下乳头括约肌切开术(EST)组和sEST+EPBD组,每组100例。对两组患者的手术时间、住院时间、总费用、并发症以及炎症指标进行比较分析。结果两组患者术后均未发生胰腺炎,所有患者均治愈。其中,sEST+EPBD组患者平均手术时间、住院时间、出血量及术后胆道感染均明显少于EST组(P<0.05)。两组患者总费用和胆道穿孔比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。术后1及24 h,sEST+EPBD组白细胞(WBC)、环氧化酶-2(Cox-2)、降钙素原(PCT)、C反应蛋白(CRP)以及肿瘤坏死因子(TNF-α)水平均明显低于EST组(P<0.01),而sEST+EPBD组的血淀粉酶水平明显升高(P<0.01);术后72 h,sEST+EPBD组WBC及Cox-2水平均明显低于EST组(P<0.05),PCT、CRP、淀粉酶以及TNF-α水平则差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论sEST+EPBD是治疗胆总管结石的一种有效、安全的方法,能减少手术时间、住院时间,有效控制术后胆道感染的发生,并且能明显降低炎症反应。     

术中造影发现胆总管结石25例分析

目的：探讨术中胆道造影意义。方法：分析对临床诊断单纯性胆囊炎病人常规术中经胆囊管插管造影摄片临床资料。结果：2002年9月～2004年9月693例单纯胆囊炎或胆囊结石行开腹胆囊切除术病例中，25例发现胆总管结石，占3．6％；其胆囊管直径与正常值有显著差异。避免再次手术和术后内镜乳头扩约肌切开术(EST)及内镜胆管引流(EBD)．结论：术中胆道造影，可以及时发现无症状性胆总管结石，又可提供影像依据，在目前医疗环境下，有一定推行意义。     

Alkaline phosphatase in the assessment of choledocholithiasis before surgery

The pre-operative diagnosis of choledocholithiasis, or common bile-duct stones, is important in patients with cholelithiasis. Intraoperative cholangiography or choledochoscopy followed by exploration of the common bile duct could be limited to those patients with stones, if an adequate pre-operative diagnosis could be made. Many clinicians use pre-operative total alkaline phosphatase level alone or in combination with bilirubin level to determine the presence or absence of choledocholithiasis. Predictive value theory was used to analyze data reported by others to assess the value of alkaline phosphatase level alone or in combination with bilirubin level in identifying patients with choledocholithiasis. The authors conclude that alkaline phosphatase level is not useful either alone or in combination with bilirubin level in determining the presence of common bile duct stones in patients with cholelithiasis.     

Cholecystectomy in cirrhotic patients

Cholecystectomy is the most common intraperitoneal operation done by general surgeons in this country and is generally considered safe. The incidence of cholelithiasis is doubled among cirrhotic patients, and biliary surgery in such patients carries tremendous risk, primarily due to excessive intraoperative hemorrhage. One author has reported a mortality of 83% among patients with severe cirrhosis having cholecystectomy. In this report, we review seven consecutive cirrhotic subjects having biliary surgery. There were no deaths. Blood loss roughly correlated with preoperative prothrombin times. Blood transfusions were required in five patients. Factors believed to improve operative outcome are discussed.     

ERCP胆道塑料支架置入术与ERCP胆道取石术治疗老年多发胆总管结石的临床效果比较

目的比较内镜下逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)胆道塑料支架置入术与ERCP胆道取石术治疗老年多发胆总管结石的临床效果。方法将2017年1月至2018年12月我院收治的168例多发胆总管结石的老年患者按手术方法的不同分为支架组(n=75)和取石组(n=93)。支架组行ERCP+内镜下乳头括约肌切开术(EST)+胆道塑料支架置入术,取石组行ERCP+EST+胆道取石术+内镜下鼻胆管引流术。比较两组生化指标、近远期并发症发生情况、手术时间、住院时间及住院费用。结果两组患者术前1 d及术后1、3、5 d的WBC、CRP、ALT、TBIL、γ-GT水平比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。两组患者的死亡率及术后胰腺炎、术后胆管炎、消化道出血的发生率比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);支架组的反复胆系感染、再次ERCP手术发生率均高于取石组,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。支架组患者的手术时间短于取石组,住院费用低于取石组,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论ERCP胆道塑料支架置入术和ERCP胆道取石术治疗老年多发胆总管结石都是安全、有效的,应根据患者情况选择合适的手术方式。     

不同术式治疗性 ERCP 在抢救急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎中的作用研究

目的胆管结石引起急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎首要治疗是要进行胆道紧急减压。本研究的目的就是研究不同术式治疗性ERCP（VTTFERCP）在抢救急性化脓性胆管炎（AOSC）中的价值。方法经临床确诊由于胆管结石引起的15例AOSC患者,接受VTTERCP,观察手术治疗效果和并发症。结果（1）接受ERCP＋EST＋胆道冲洗＋ENBD的手术2例;（2）ERCP＋EST＋取石＋胆道冲洗3例;（3）ERCP＋EST＋取石＋胆道冲洗＋ENBD2例;（4）ERCP＋EST＋部分取石＋胆道冲洗＋EBND2例;（5）ERCP＋EST4-碎石＋取石＋胆道冲洗2例;（6）ERCP＋EST＋碎石＋取石＋胆道冲洗＋EBND2例;（7）ERCP＋EST＋部分取石＋支架置入＋经支架胆道冲洗2例。本组VTrERCP手术成功率100％,治愈率100％,安全率100％。第（4）组1例术后化脓性胆管炎治愈后转当地医院手术取石,无1例并发症或死亡者。结论VTTFERCP手术方式是抢救AOSC一种非常好的方法,效果可靠,安全。     

内镜逆行胰胆管造影术及括约肌切开术在腹腔镜胆囊切除手术前后的应用

目的总结内镜逆行胰胆管造影术（ERCP）和内镜括约肌切开术（EST）在腹腔镜胆囊切除术（LC）手术前后对胆总管结石的诊断和治疗效果。方法对68例LC术前、术后合并或可疑胆总管结石的患者行ERCP。结果 LC术前发现胆总管结石42例,EST清除39例,清除率92.9%（39/42）;LC术后发现胆总管结石7例,EST清除7例,清除率100%（7/7）。结论 ERCP、EST对于LC术前术后胆总管结石的诊断和治疗是一种准确、安全、有效的微创方法,并对于后期的结石再发具有可重复操作性。