Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy

Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy, endoscopically guided calculus fragmentation and removal through a percutaneous track, is the most widely used technique in the United States for removal of symptomatic upper urinary tract calculi. This article reviews the establishment of percutaneous renal access, track dilatation, and stone removal methods that constitute this technique.     

Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy

Percutaneous renal calculus removal has evolved rapidly over the past 4 years. Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy (PUL), based on access to the kidney via a percutaneous nephrostomy track, consists of fragmentation and removal of calculi under visual nephroscopic control. Clinical experience has proven this modality to be safe, reliable, and effective for treatment of symptomatic renal calculus disease. This article reviews our PUL technique and results.     

Percutaneous transhepatic electrohydraulic lithotripsy

Calculi can be fragmented by hydraulic shock waves generated by an electrical discharge across the tip of a coaxial electrode. After testing a device by using this technique in the biliary trees of dogs, the authors fragmented a large common bile duct stone in a patient through a percutaneous transhepatic approach. The fragmentation allowed nonsurgical drainage of the obstructed duct.     

Percutaneous lithotripsy of renal calculi

Percutaneous nephrostomy and stone removal was performed 240 times in 84 patients during a five-year period. Surgery was necessary in only two cases; hemorrhage requiring blood transfusion occurred in four. Perforation of the renal pelvis in five patients healed without sequelae. Final control of the nephrostomy was achieved in almost all cases. Indications and technical points regarding percutaneous lithotripsy are discussed.     

Percutaneous lithotripsy of staghorn calculi

Eleven cases of staghorn calculi managed by percutaneous lithotripsy were reviewed. Ten of 11 cases were successful, and 70% of the successfully treated patients were discharged free of any renal stones. The percentage of patients discharged with residual stone fragments was higher than those with either percutaneously managed nondendritic calculi or surgically treated staghorn calculi. The complication rate was higher than for nonbranched stones managed percutaneously and was comparable to that for surgically removed dendritic calculi. Hospital stay averaged 18 days, equal to that for staghorn calculi treated by conventional surgical approach, but considerably longer than for nonbranched stones. Overall results more closely approximated those for surgical removal of staghorn calculi than those for percutaneous removal of nonbranched calculi. However, the principal advantage of percutaneous lithotripsy of staghorn calculi over surgical management is the significant reduction in convalescence after discharge from the hospital.     

Percutaneous pulsed-dye laser lithotripsy of gallbladder stones in swine

Human gallstones were surgically implanted in the gallbladders of 14 pigs. Nine to 16 days later a sheath was successfully placed percutaneously into the gallbladders of 13 animals using ultrasound and fluoroscopy. Two methods were used to guide laser fragmentation: (1) fluoroscopy and a steerable double lumen catheter (two animals), and (2) a flexible endoscope (11 animals). Laser treatment was done in 12 animals with a flashlamp-pumped pulsed-dye laser. A mean of 3600 pulses/animal were delivered using a wavelength of 504 nm and a maximum energy of 60 mJ/pulse. No fragmentation occurred in two animals, partial fragmentation occurred in six, and complete fragmentation occurred in four. Endoscopic guidance was superior to fluoroscopic guidance. Complications (sheath dislodgment, gallbladder perforation, bleeding) occurred in eight of 14 animals. Pulsed-dye laser fragmentation of gallbladder stones is feasible using endoscopic guidance. The use of this technique through an acute percutaneous tract may be associated with complications.     

Percutaneous gallstone lithotripsy. Results in acute and chronic swine models

The authors describe here a rotary catheter for the percutaneous fragmentation of gallstones. Gallstones are drawn into the rotating impeller by a powerful vortex and mechanically fragmented. Fragments are aspirated from the gallbladder following use of the device. The safety and efficacy of the device was tested after placement of human gallstones in the pig's gallbladder in 19 acute, 15 chronic, and two control experiments. In 27 completed experiments, 206 human gallstones (6-20 mm) were implanted. Most residual fragments were less than 2 mm; 24 fragments were 2 to 4 mm and seven were 5 to 8 mm. Acute histologic changes included focal loss of mucosa, mucosal and submucosal hemorrhage, and deposition of biliary material in the mucosa and submucosa. At 30 and 90 days, gallbladder histology revealed regeneration of the mucosa with isolated granuloma formation.     

Percutaneous cholecystolithotomy with endoscopic lithotripsy by using a pulsed-dye laser: preliminary experience

Percutaneous cholecystolithotomy with endoscopically directed lithotripsy with a pulsed-dye laser was performed in eight patients for the treatment of symptomatic gallstones. All patients had stones that were not amenable to therapy by less invasive techniques. During the first stage of a two-stage procedure, a cholecystostomy catheter was placed percutaneously. During the second stage, performed at least 10 days later, the stones were fragmented with a laser and removed. Fragmentation of the stones was successful in all patients. In six patients, the gallbladder was completely cleared of stones, as assessed with endoscopy and cholecystography. In two patients, residual fragments remained in the gallbladder. No laser-related complications occurred. This preliminary experience suggests that the pulsed-dye laser is safe and effective in endoscopically directed lithotripsy of gallbladder stones.     

Percutaneous rotational contact biliary lithotripsy: initial clinical results with the Kensey Nash lithotrite

The percutaneous rotary lithotrite introduces a new concept to fragmentation and percutaneous removal of gallstones. A fluid vortex is generated, pulling calculi into a high-speed blade that fragments stones to predominantly under 500 microns. The results of treating the first 10 patients with this instrument reveal that large stone burdens as well as small stones (2-3 mm) of any composition can be removed if the gallbladder is of sufficient size to accommodate the six-pronged basket. Rotation times of 7-39 minutes were required. Nine of 10 procedures were completed; access was lost in one case. One major complication occurred. At repeat oral cholecystography, the gallbladder was visualized after 3-6 weeks in eight of the nine patients. Ursodeoxycholic acid was administered from 3 to 12 months to five patients with either residual stones or aggregates. The hospital stay ranged from 48 to 72 hours. All patients (except the patient who underwent surgery) resumed light activity in 3-4 days and strenuous activity and full diet within 3 weeks.     

Percutaneous transhepatic cholangioscopy-guided lithotripsy and retrieval of vascular coils eroded into the biliary tree

Endovascular coil erosion into the biliary system after hepatic artery embolization is a rare complication which may result in inflammation, strictures, choledocholithiasis, biliary colic, and cholangitis. Removal of coils may result in cessation of these symptoms, but is challenging in patients who cannot undergo removal via standard endoscopic approaches. This case report describes the retrieval of coils placed across a hepatic artery pseudoaneurysm, which over several years eroded into the biliary tree, resulting in calculi formation and post-prandial pain. Using combined fluoroscopy and cholangioscopy via percutaneous transhepatic accesses, the calculi were fragmented and the coils were retrieved, resulting in cessation of symptoms.     

Percutaneous transhepatic holmium laser lithotripsy for cholelithiasis and balloon dilation for common bile duct stone removal

Biliary lithiasis is common in clinical practice. We present the case of a 53-year-old man referred to our hospital with a history of biliary lithiasis. Abdominal magnetic resonance imaging revealed gallbladder stones and common bile duct stones. To avoid surgery, we opted to apply percutaneous transhepatic techniques to clear gallbladder and bile duct stones. This study reports our experience using these techniques, including percutaneous transhepatic holmium laser lithotripsy for cholelithiasis combined with balloon dilation to remove common bile duct stones and avoid open surgery.     

Gallstone lithotripsy: in vitro comparison of fragmentation with a tunable-dye laser and an ultrasonic wire.

Large bile duct stones require fragmentation prior to extraction through the papilla or through a percutaneous tract. This can be attempted with dissolution therapy, crushing baskets, or lithotripsy. Lithotripsy can be accomplished safely and effectively with tunable-dye laser energy delivered through a flexible, 1-F optical fiber under endoscopic or fluoroscopic guidance, but laser technology is very costly. A prototype, flexible ball-tipped wire coupled to an ultrasonic generator via a piezoelectric crystal has been developed for sonolysis of atheroma and thrombus in humans. The purpose of this experiment was to compare human gallstone fragmentation in vitro with a tunable-dye laser and this prototype wire to see if the less expensive ultrasound device might provide an alternative to costly laser technology. Gallstones from 17 patients were subjected to lithotripsy in a water bath with each device until completely fragmented or 60 seconds had elapsed. Neither device effectively fragmented cholesterol stones under these conditions. The ultrasonic wire completely fragmented 57% of bilirubinate stones in 60 seconds. The tunable-dye laser completely fragmented 100% of bilirubinate stones in less than 35 seconds (P = .04). Tunable-dye laser lithotripsy appears superior to the ultrasonic device for percutaneous treatment of bile duct stones.     

经皮肾镜和输尿管镜联合弹道超声碎石及清石术治疗复杂性肾结石

目的：探讨经皮肾镜和输尿管镜联合弹道超声碎石、清石系统治疗复杂性肾结石的效果及安全性。方法：采用20．8F新型肾镜和8／9．8F输尿管硬镜，联合应用EMS第三代气压弹道超声碎石、清石系统治疗复杂性肾结石120例、134个肾结石；男72例，女48例，年龄9～68岁，平均41．3岁；其中双肾复杂性肾结石7例，左侧51例，右侧62例。结石直径2．0～7．0cm，平均3．5cm。结果：112例患者一期取石成功，8例二期取石成功；单通道取石114例，双通道取石6例；一次取石105例，2次取石15例；结石清除率91．6％。平均手术时间110min，肾造瘘管留置时间平均6d，平均住院日12d。有6例需要输血，其中2例穿刺扩张通道成功后并发大出血，留置F14导尿管夹闭后行二期取石，1例取石术后反复出血，经超选择性肾动脉介入栓塞治愈。其余未出现其它并发症。结论：经皮肾镜和输尿管镜联合弹道超声碎石、清石术治疗复杂性肾结石，具有创伤小、出血少、碎石后清石效率高、恢复快、住院时间短、并发症少等优点，值得推广应用。     

Intracorporeal biliary lithotripsy

Most bile duct calculi can be removed with standard percutaneous or endoscopic techniques. Very large stones are the most common cause for failure. Intracorporeal lithotripsy, and EHL in particular, can be used safely in either the biliary tree or gallbladder to fragment these large stones and allow percutaneous removal or passage. Intracorporeal EHL requires direct vision to prevent damage to the bile duct mucosa. Intracorporeal laser lithotripsy may offer some safety advantages, but the laser requires much more expensive equipment than intracorporeal EHL. Additional studies are needed to determine the technique that is better in each circumstance.