Comparison of early diabetic retinopathy staging in asymptomatic patients between autonomous AI-based screening and human-graded ultra-widefield colour fundus images

IntroductionComparison of diabetic retinopathy (DR) severity between autonomous Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based outputs from an FDA-approved screening system and human retina specialists’ gradings from ultra-widefield (UWF) colour images.MethodsAsymptomatic diabetics without a previous diagnosis of DR were included in this prospective observational pilot study. Patients were imaged with autonomous AI (IDx-DR, Digital Diagnostics). For each eye, two 45° colour fundus images were analysed by a secure server-based AI algorithm. UWF colour fundus imaging was performed using Optomap (Daytona, Optos). The International Clinical DR severity score was assessed both on a 7-field area projection (7F-mask) according to the early treatment diabetic retinopathy study (ETDRS) and on the total gradable area (UWF full-field) up to the far periphery on UWF images.ResultsOf 54 patients included (n = 107 eyes), 32 were type 2 diabetics (11 females). Mean BCVA was 0.99 ± 0.25. Autonomous AI diagnosed 16 patients as negative, 28 for moderate DR and 10 for having a vision-threatening disease (severe DR, proliferative DR, diabetic macular oedema). Based on the 7F-mask grading with the eye with the worse grading defining the DR stage 23 patients were negative for DR, 11 showed mild, 19 moderate and 1 severe DR. When UWF full-field was analysed, 20 patients were negative for DR, while the number of mild, moderate and severe DR patients were 12, 21, and 1, respectively.ConclusionsThe autonomous AI-based DR examination demonstrates sufficient accuracy in diagnosing asymptomatic non-proliferative diabetic patients with referable DR even compared to UWF imaging evaluated by human experts offering a suitable method for DR screening.Subject terms: Retinal diseases, Medical imaging     

Changes in management of diabetic retinopathy by Australian ophthalmologists as a result of the NHMRC clinical guidelines

Purpose : To document changes in management of diabetic retinopathy by Australian ophthalmologists after release of the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) clinical guidelines. Methods : Self‐administered questionnaires were mailed to Australian ophthalmologists prior to release of the NHMRC guidelines for the management of diabetic retinopathy, and at one and 2.5 years after release of the guidelines. The questionnaires elicited information about current management practices in relation to diabetic retinopathy. Results : The response rate for the baseline and two follow‐up surveys was 82%, 81%, and 80%, respectively. More than 85% of the ophthalmologists responded that the guidelines were useful in improving management, were easy to understand, and were already part of their routine clinical practice. A relatively small percentage (12%) felt that the guidelines made recommendations that were not practical or feasible. Contrary to the NHMRC guidelines, at the second follow‐up survey, only 50% of the ophthalmologists said that they would almost never perform fluorescein angiography in eyes with mild non‐proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The change from baseline to the second follow‐up in the percentage of ophthalmologists who would perform cataract surgery after treating clinically significant macular oedema (as advised by the NHMRC guidelines) was statistically significant (baseline = 83.7%, 95% confidence limit = 80.4, 87.0; second follow up = 90.4, 95% confidence limit = 87.3, 93.5). Conclusions : Distribution of the printed NHMRC Clinical Practice Guidelines: Management of Diabetic Retinopathy and full colour Retinopathy Chart resulted in a significant change in the recommended order of treatment of clinically significant macular oedema. However, no significant change in the use of fluorescein angiography was documented.     

Selfie fundus imaging for diabetic retinopathy screening

BackgroundRegular screening for retinopathy and timely intervention reduces blindness from diabetes by 90%. Screening is currently dependent on the interpretation of images captured by trained technicians. Inherent barriers of accessibility and affordability with this approach impede widespread success of retinopathy screening programs. Herein, we report our observations on the potential of a novel approach, Selfie Fundus Imaging (SFI), to enhance diabetic retinopathy screening.MethodsThe study was undertaken over a two-month period during COVID 19 lockdown. 60 diabetic patients participated in the study. Retinal images were captured using three different approaches, handheld smartphone-based photographs captured by patients themselves after a short video-assisted training session (SFI group), and smartphone-based photographs captured by a trained technician and photographs taken on desktop conventional digital fundus camera (Gold standard). Sensitivity and kappa statistics was determined for retinopathy and macular oedema grading.FindingsMean age of the study participants was 52.4 years ± 9.8 years and 78% were men. Of 120 images captured using SFI, 90% were centred-gradable, 8% were decentred-gradable and 2% were ungradable. 82% patients captured the image within a minute (majority by 31–45 s). The sensitivity of SFI to detect diabetic retinopathy was 88.39%. Agreement between SFI grading and standard fundus photograph grading was 85.86% with substantial kappa (0.77). For the detection of diabetic macular oedema, the agreement between SFI images and standard images was 93.67, with almost perfect kappa (0.91).ConclusionFundus images were captured by patients using SFI without major difficulty and were comparable to images taken by trained specialist. With greater penetrance, advances, and availability of mobile photographic technology, we believe that SFI would positively impact the success of diabetic retinopathy screening programs by breaking the barriers of availability, accessibility, and affordability. SFI could ensure continuation of screening schedules for diabetic retinopathy, even in the face a highly contagious pandemic.Subject terms: Outcomes research, Retinal diseases, Physical examination     

Mayombian ethnic, vegetables low intake, insulin treatment, diabetic nephropathy and severe diabetic retinopathy are determinants of blindness in diabetic Africans

AIM:To determine the frequency and causes of blindness in diabetic Africans.METHODS:The study was a cross-sectional survey carried out among known black diabetics consecutively admitted at the Teaching Hospital, University of Kinshasa, between 2005 and 2007. Examination methods included interviewer-administered structured questionnaire, eye examinations (visual acuity, tonometry, funduscopy), and fasting plasma glycaemia test.RESULTS:Of the 227 patients examined, 15.9% had blindness. Univariate analyses showed significant association between female, severity of diabetic retinopathy, Mayombian ethnic group, use of insulin treatment, low intake of vegetables, diabetic nephropathy, open angle glaucoma and blindness in all diabetics. After logistic regression, only diabetic nephropathy, use of insulin treatment, macular oedema, Mayombian ethnic group and vegetables low intake were the independent risk factors of blindness in all diabetics. However, after logistic regression in the sub-group with diabetic retinopathy, only open angle glaucoma and proliferative diabetic retinopathy were the independent determinants of blindness.CONCLUSION:The majority of the causes of blindness in these diabetic Africans are avoidable. It is recommended that appropriate diabetes care, nutrition education, periodic eye examination and laser photocoagulation facilities should be provided for treating diabetics in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Nonmydriatic screening for diabetic retinopathy by ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (Optomap)

Purpose To compare the diagnostic properties of a nonmydriatic 200° ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) versus onsite mydriatic ophthalmologic examination for diabetic retinopathy. Methods A consecutive series of 51 eyes of 51 patients with different levels of diabetic retinopathy (DR) was examined. Grading of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema obtained on stereoscopic dilated funduscopy by a retina specialist was compared against grading obtained from Optomap Panoramic200 SLO images. All SLOs were performed with an undilated pupil, and no additional clinical information was used for evaluation of the Optomap images by three independent, masked expert graders. Results A total of five images (9.8%) were not gradable due to insufficient quality. Clinically 4 eyes had proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), while 9 had none, 5 mild, 19 moderate and 14 severe nonproliferative diseases (NPDR). Of the gradable 46 images, a clinically significant macular edema (CSME) was present in 28 eyes clinically. On Optomap, all eyes with PDR were detected as being proliferative, and a sensitivity of 94% at a specificity of 100% was obtained for all graders to detect more than mild DR. Agreement between Optomap retinopathy grading and clinical assessment was good with unweighted kappas of 0.68, 0.68 and 0.51. Assessment of CSME yielded sensitivities of 93, 93 and 89% at specificities of 89, 72 and 83%. Conclusions The Optomap Panoramic200 nonmydriatic images are of sufficient quality to assess DR and CSME validly and therefore fulfill the basic requirements for telescreening programs. Aljoscha S. Neubauer and Marcus J. Kernt contributed equally. The authors do not have any commercial interest in any of the materials and methods used in this study.     

Evaluating the use of a scanning laser-derived oedema index to grade diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy

PURPOSE: To evaluate the Heidelburg Retina Tomograph II (HRTII) retinal module as a tool for grading severity of retinopathy in a diabetic retinal screening and treatment service. METHODS: Seventy-seven consecutive patients with type 2 diabetes underwent scanning laser tomography using the HRTII. Scan data were analysed using the proprietary macular module software and oedema indices calculated for each of nine topographic macular zones. Two consultant ophthalmologists, masked to the result of the HRTII scans, graded each subject for severity of retinopathy and presence of macular oedema. The oedema indices were analysed statistically to determine whether these correlated with severity of retinopathy and presence of macular oedema. RESULTS: There is an increased oedema index in severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy in the outer temporal zone compared with lesser grades of diabetic retinopathy (P = 0.001). In patients with clinically detectable macular oedema, the oedema index from the 500-microm-diameter central zone was significantly higher than those without (P = 0.03). CONCLUSION: The scanning laser-derived oedema index differentiated between moderate and severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy in this series and detected diabetic macular oedema. Further development of this technology may provide an important tool to supplement retinal photographic surveillance in eye clinics overwhelmed by an increasing prevalence of type 2 diabetes.     

Review of retinal cameras for global coverage of diabetic retinopathy screening

The global burden of diabetes has resulted in an increase in the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy (DR), a microvascular complication of diabetes. Lifelong repetitive screening for DR is essential for early detection and timely management to prevent visual impairment due to the silent sight-threatening disorder. Colour fundus photography (CFP) is helpful for documentation of the retinopathy as well as for counselling the patient. CFP has established roles in DR screening, detection, progression and monitoring of treatment response. DR screening programmes use validated mydriatic or non-mydriatic fundus cameras for retinal imaging and trained image graders identify referable DR. Smartphone-based fundus cameras and handheld fundus cameras that are cost-effective, portable and easy to handle in remote places are gaining popularity in recent years. The images captured with these low-cost devices can be immediately sent to trained ophthalmologists for grading of DR. Recent increase in numbers of telemedicine programmes based on imaging with digital fundus cameras and remote interpretation has facilitated larger population coverage of DR screening and timely referral of those with sight-threatening DR to ophthalmologists. Good-quality retinal imaging and accurate diagnosis are essential to reduce inappropriate referrals. Advances in digital imaging such as ultra-wide field imaging and multi-modal imaging have opened new avenues for assessing DR. Fundus cameras with integrated artificial intelligence (AI)-based automated algorithms can also provide instant DR diagnosis and reduce the burden of healthcare systems. We review the different types of fundus cameras currently used in DR screening and management around the world.Subject terms: Retinal diseases, Outcomes research, Medical imaging     

The All India Ophthalmological Society - Academic and Research Committee pan-India diabetic retinopathy project “Fixing the missing link”: Prevalence data from West Bengal

Purpose:The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and its risk factors among diabetic patients in rural and urban West Bengal (WB).Methods:Patients were screened in the physician''s clinic by a team of ophthalmologist, optometrist and counsellor. Demographic details, diabetic control, compliance to eye checkup, awareness regarding diabetic blindness, and visual acuity were recorded using a questionnaire. DR was graded both by indirect ophthalmoscopy and fundus photo taken with a portable fundus camera.Results:A total of 1553 subjects were screened over 39 camps across 14 districts of WB over 17 months. The prevalence of DR was 21.51%, with a significant difference between rural (26.55%) and urban (13.89%) areas (P < 0.01). No significant difference with gender was seen (P = 0.99). Presence and grade of DR were related to age, loss of vision, diabetic age, diabetic control, awareness of diabetic blindness and last eye checkup.Conclusion:This study provides the first major prevalence data from WB, and gives valuable insight regarding modifiable risk factors for DR. It is also the first DR study in India to be conducted in the physician''s clinic. The study results emphasise the need to “fix the missing link” between ophthalmologists and treating physicians to win the battle against DR.     

Wide-field imaging and OCT vs clinical evaluation of patients referred from diabetic retinopathy screening

Purpose

Compare wide-field Optomap imaging and optical coherence tomography (OCT) with clinical examination in diabetic retinopathy (DR).

Methods

Patients referred from Diabetic Eye Screening Programmes to three centres underwent dilated ophthalmoscopy and were assigned a DR grade. Wide-field colour imaging and OCT were then examined by the same clinician at that visit and a combined grade was assigned. Independent graders later reviewed the images and assigned an imaging-only grade. These three grades (clinical, combined, and imaging) were compared. The method that detected the highest grade of retinopathy, including neovascularisation, was determined.

Results

Two thousand and forty eyes of 1023 patients were assessed. Wide-field imaging compared with clinical examination had a sensitivity and specificity of 73% and 96%, respectively, for detecting proliferative DR, 84% and 69% for sight-threatening DR, and 64% and 90% for diabetic macular oedema. Imaging alone found 35 more eyes with new vessels (19% of eyes with new vessels) and the combined grade found 14 more eyes than clinical examination alone.

Conclusions

Assessment of wide-field images and OCT alone detected more eyes with higher grades of DR compared with clinical examination alone or when combined with imaging in a clinical setting. The sensitivity was not higher as the techniques were not the same, with imaging alone being more sensitive. Wide-field imaging with OCT could be used to assess referrals from DR screening to determine management, to enhance the quality of assessment in clinics, and to follow-up patients whose DR is above the screening referral threshold but does not actually require treatment.     

Cataract surgery on diabetic patients. A prospective evaluation of risk factors and complications

PURPOSE: This study presents an evaluation of cataract surgery on diabetic patients. One experienced surgeon carried out phaco emulsification on all subjects and the same surface-coated one-piece PMMA-lens-type was implanted. The lens fluorescence and the blood-aqueous barrier (BAB) were then evaluated as experimental preoperative risk indicators. RESULTS: During follow-up, 10 out of 39 diabetic patients progressed unilaterally in diabetic retinopathy or developed macular oedema, a significant relative risk. Neither lens fluorescence, BAB, HbA1c, level of retinopathy, type/duration of diabetes, diabetes treatment or antihypertensive treatment differed significantly between the group of patients with postoperative progression of retinopathy/macular oedema and those without. Results indicated NIDDM (non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus/type 2 diabetes) patients might have increased risk of a postoperative macular oedema. CONCLUSION: When diabetic retinopathy (DR) is not in a proliferative phase it should not be regarded as a contraindication to modern cataract surgery. Neither lens fluorescence nor BAB is valuable as a risk indicator for postoperative progression of DR.     

Visual outcome after phacoemulsification and IOL implantation in diabetic patients

AIMS: To follow visual acuity (VA) and progression of diabetic retinopathy (DR) after phacoemulsification in diabetic patients with different stages of DR and controls. METHODS: This prospective study included 27 diabetic patients with no or mild to moderate non-proliferative DR; 25 patients with moderate to severe non-proliferative, or proliferative DR; and 22 non-diabetic controls. All patients underwent uncomplicated, phacoemulsification surgery, with implantation of a heparin-surface modified (HSM) poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) intraocular lens (IOL) into the capsular bag. Colour fundus photographs and fluorescein angiograms (FA) were taken at 1 week (baseline), 3 months, and 1 year postoperatively to determine stability or progression of DR. RESULTS: The VA of 46 diabetic eyes (88%), was improved 1 year after surgery and only six eyes (12%) were unchanged or worse. 41 diabetic eyes (79%) achieved a VA of 0.5 or better and 11 eyes (21%) had a final VA lower than 0.5. Significantly lower final corrected VA was found 1 year after surgery in eyes with advanced DR (median 0.5; range 0.1-1.0) compared with controls (1.0; 0.1-1.0) and eyes with no or mild to moderate DR (1.0; 0.1-1.0). Eyes with mild to moderate DR and clinically significant macular oedema (CSMO) 1 week postoperatively had a lower final VA than those without CSMO. Angiographic cystoid macular oedema (CMO) was detected with FA in 15% of all diabetic eyes 1 week postoperatively. 41 eyes (79%) showed no change or improvement of the retinal status 1 year after cataract surgery. Progression was found in 11 eyes (21%), mainly in eyes with mild to moderate DR and moderate to severe DR. Eyes with an indication for laser photocoagulation at baseline showed a significantly higher rate of progression of DR after surgery than those without indication for laser treatment. CONCLUSION: The final visual outcome was improved in the majority of diabetic eyes. Eyes with CSMO at the time of surgery had the worst prognosis regarding postoperative VA.     

Further survey of Australian ophthalmologist's diabetic retinopathy management: did practice adhere to National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines?

Background: To compare the self‐reported management of diabetic retinopathy by Australian ophthalmologists with the 1997 National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines. Methods: Self‐reported cross‐sectional survey of patterns of practice. Questionnaires were sent to all Australian ophthalmologists, comprising questions regarding professional details, diabetic retinopathy screening attitudes/practices and specific hypothetical management scenarios. Data were analysed using Chi‐squared and adjusted logistic regression. Result: 480 of the 751 (64%) eligible Australian ophthalmologists participated. The majority (80%, n = 376) reported they consistently reviewed patient's glycaemic control, but only 55% and 41% regularly reviewed blood pressure and serum cholesterol control, respectively. Ophthalmologists generally adhered to NHMRC‐recommended screening intervals, although only 38% agreed with the guidelines relating to screening of pre‐pubertal diabetic patients. Fluorescein angiogram was used more than recommended, especially for mild non‐proliferative diabetic retinopathy where 45% of respondents used this investigation. Practice duration >15 years was associated with more regular fluorescein angiogram use (OR = 3.74; 95% CI: 2.53–5.53, P < 0.001). In the clinical scenarios where clinically significant macular oedema was concurrently present with cataract or proliferative diabetic retinopathy, >26% referred to retinal subspecialists for management; 85% of the remaining ophthalmologists performed macular laser first. Respondents with practice duration >15 years were 7.8 times (P = 0.001) more likely to perform cataract surgery first. Conclusion: Diabetic retinopathy management guidelines were generally well followed by Australian ophthalmologists. However, areas of practice variation existed including frequent use of fluorescein angiogram. Significant proportion of practitioners referred diabetic patients to retinal subspecialists, who were more likely to adhere to guideline recommendations. Ophthalmologists with greater experience (>15 years) were more likely to employ practices differing from NHMRC recommendations.     

Comparison of automated and expert human grading of diabetic retinopathy using smartphone-based retinal photography

PurposeThe aim of this study is to investigate the efficacy of a mobile platform that combines smartphone-based retinal imaging with automated grading for determining the presence of referral-warranted diabetic retinopathy (RWDR).MethodsA smartphone-based camera (RetinaScope) was used by non-ophthalmic personnel to image the retina of patients with diabetes. Images were analyzed with the Eyenuk EyeArt® system, which generated referral recommendations based on presence of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and/or markers for clinically significant macular oedema. Images were independently evaluated by two masked readers and categorized as refer/no refer. The accuracies of the graders and automated interpretation were determined by comparing results to gold standard clinical diagnoses.ResultsA total of 119 eyes from 69 patients were included. RWDR was present in 88 eyes (73.9%) and in 54 patients (78.3%). At the patient-level, automated interpretation had a sensitivity of 87.0% and specificity of 78.6%; grader 1 had a sensitivity of 96.3% and specificity of 42.9%; grader 2 had a sensitivity of 92.5% and specificity of 50.0%. At the eye-level, automated interpretation had a sensitivity of 77.8% and specificity of 71.5%; grader 1 had a sensitivity of 94.0% and specificity of 52.2%; grader 2 had a sensitivity of 89.5% and specificity of 66.9%.DiscussionRetinal photography with RetinaScope combined with automated interpretation by EyeArt achieved a lower sensitivity but higher specificity than trained expert graders. Feasibility testing was performed using non-ophthalmic personnel in a retina clinic with high disease burden. Additional studies are needed to assess efficacy of screening diabetic patients from general population.Subject terms: Medical imaging, Prognostic markers, Retinal diseases, Medical research     

Management of diabetic retinopathy by Australian ophthalmologists. Working Group on Evaluation of the NHMRC Retinopathy Guideline Distribution. National Health and Medical Research Council

Objective : To describe current management practices of diabetic retinopathy used by Australian ophthalmologists. Setting : Two‐page self‐administered questionnaire mailed to 622 ophthalmologists listed with the Royal Australian College of Ophthalmologists. Methods : The survey included questions about practice details such as size and location; specialty; current practice with regard to management of patients with diabetes; confidence in screening for diabetic retinopathy; and a number of patient scenarios related to screening, follow‐up and treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Results : Of the 577 eligible ophthalmologists, 475 (82%) completed the questionnaire. They had been practicing ophthalmology between 1 and 50 years (median 16 years) and 89 (19%) indicated that they had a subspecialty interest either in vitreo‐retinal surgery or in medical retina. For 145 (30.5%) of the ophthalmologists, at least one of their practices was located in a country area. The estimated percentage of patients with diabetes ranged from 0.1 to 60% (mean = 9.9%). Retinal specialists perform between 0 and 750 macular focal photocoagulation procedures per year (mean = 94) compared with a range of 0–350 for non‐retinal specialists (mean = 10.3) (t = 6.1, P < 0.001). The ophthalmologists were presented with a hypothetical patient with cataract requiring surgery and clinically significant macular oedema that would be difficult to treat (but not impossible) because of the cataract. Seventy‐seven ophthalmologists (16%) said they would delay the macular laser therapy until after the cataract surgery had been performed. In multivariate logistic regression models, non‐retinal specialists were 4.44 times as likely to perform the cataract surgery first (95%CL = 1.57, 12.6) and ophthalmologists who had been in practice more than 15 years were 2.50 times as likely to perform cataract surgery first (95%CL = 1.47, 4.26). There were other examples of practice that differed from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines in patient scenarios. The majority of ophthalmologists (60%) expressed a moderate or strong need to learn more about the management of diabetic retinopathy. Discussion : The variability in the management of diabetic retinopathy by Australian ophthalmologists and the desire of ophthalmologists to learn more about diabetic retinopathy provide evidence to support the need for the NHMRC Guidelines for Diabetic Retinopathy. These data will be used to evaluate changes in practice as a result of the implementation of the guidelines.     

Detection of diabetic retinopathy: a comparison between red-free digital images and colour transparencies

Background The aim of this study was to compare how diabetic retinopathy was detected from red-free digital images and colour transparencies.Methods Two ophthalmologists graded two-field, nonstereoscopic, 60° red-free digital images and colour transparencies utilizing an ETDRS-based grading scale, from 107 mainly type 2 diabetic patients. The discordantly scored eyes were graded by the graders together to obtain a consensus level of retinopathy for each method. The eyes with discordant consensus grading results were further graded using all available photographic material to reach a final consensus level of diabetic retinopathy. Intermethod variations were presented as percentages and using kappa (k) and weighted kappa (wk) statistics. The errors of the two consensus gradings with respect to the final consensus grading were compared using McNemars test.Results For the colour transparencies there was an agreement between the individual and the consensus grading results in 93% (k=0.90, wk=0.97) and 86% (k=0.79, wk 0.88) for grader 1 and grader 2. Corresponding figures for red-free digital images were 88% (k=0.83, wk=0.96) and 84% (k=0.78, wk 0.91). Agreement between methods was obtained in 76/107 eyes (71%; k=0.58 and wk=0.79). In the 31 discordantly graded eyes the level of retinopathy was underestimated in 20/31 (64%) vs 7/31 eyes (23%) and overestimated in 1/31 (3%) vs 3/31 eyes (10%) from colour transparencies and red-free digital images, respectively. The error tendencies were significantly lower when using red-free digital images (p<0.008).Conclusions Red-free digital images are comparable with two-field colour transparencies in the identification of mild to moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy.     

糖尿病性视网膜病变的随访观察

随访糖尿病视网膜病变（ＤＲ）单纯型Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ期８５例１４５眼,单纯型进展为增殖型糖尿病视网膜病变（ＰＤＲ）Ⅳ期者,随访２年为２１眼（１４％）,５年为４９眼（３４％）;Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ进展至Ⅳ期的发生率,Ⅲ期〉Ⅱ期,Ⅱ期〉Ⅰ期,差别有显著性（Ｐ〈０．０５）。糖尿病黄斑水肿随访年限增长而增加,初诊黄斑水肿３５眼,２年内增至４３眼,５年内增至５５眼,视网膜静脉串珠状改变,视网膜内大量微血管异常和四个象限内存在出血和／或微血管瘤是单纯型进展至ＰＤＲ的危险性病变,血糖控制不良,糖尿病病程长和高血压可能是单纯型进展至ＰＤＲ的危险性因素。为预防或减少ＤＲ致盲,应早期发现ＤＲ,并给予长期随访。     

糖尿病视网膜病变荧光素眼底血管造影的分期探讨

目的按荧光素眼底血管造影(fundus fluorescein angiography,FFA)探讨糖尿病视网膜病变(diabetic retinopathy,DR)分期和黄斑水肿分型。方法对1 058例糖尿病患者的2 097只患眼进行FFA检查，以FFA检查结果对DR进行分期，对黄斑水肿进行分型。分析患者糖尿病病程、视力与DR分期以及黄斑水肿分型的相互关系。并与检眼镜检查的DR分期标准进行比较，提出FFA检查的DR分期和黄斑水肿分型特征。结果2 097只眼中，无DR者124只眼，占5.9%；DRⅠ期826只眼，占39.4%；Ⅱ期563只眼，占26.8%；Ⅲ期262只眼，占12.5%；Ⅳ期254只眼，占12.1%；Ⅴ期60只眼，占2.9%；Ⅵ期8只眼，占0.4%。819只眼发生黄斑水肿，占39.1%，其中局限性水肿311只眼，占38.0%；弥漫性水肿322只眼，占39.3%；囊样水肿112只眼，占13.7%；缺血性水肿25只眼，占3.1%；增生性水肿49只眼，占6.0%。结论根据FFA检查结果将DR分为 6期：Ⅰ期为检眼镜检查分期标准中的1、2期合并；Ⅱ期为检眼镜检查分期标准中的3期；Ⅲ期为增生前期糖尿病视网膜病变（preproliferative diabetic retinopathy,PPDR）；Ⅳ期为视盘和（或）视网膜有新生血管；Ⅴ期为机化增生膜形成。Ⅵ期为牵拉性视网膜脱离。将糖尿病性黄斑水肿分为局限性、弥漫性、囊样、缺血性、增生性等5型。 (中华眼底病杂志,2003,19:333-337)     

OCTA在糖尿病视网膜病变中的临床应用现状

糖尿病视网膜病变是糖尿病引起的微血管病变中最常见的疾病,晚期对视力危害极大,如不及时治疗,可致盲。糖尿病视网膜病变以往诊治、随访主要依据荧光素眼底血管造影,因其操作有创、容易发生过敏不良反应等副作用在临床应用中有一定的局限性。近年兴起的光学相干断层扫描血管成像无创、快速、眼底血管成像分辨率高,它不仅可以分层显示视网膜脉络膜血管网信息,而且能定量分析黄斑区血流变化情况,并且首次实现在活体上对视盘、黄斑区的血流分析达到组织解剖水平,应用前景广阔,越来越受眼科医生的青睐。本文就OCTA在糖尿病视网膜病变中的临床应用现状进行简要综述。     

Diabetic retinopathy management by Australian optometrists

Background: To survey the current diabetic retinopathy screening and management practices of Australian optometrists following the release of the 1997 National Health Medical Research Council Diabetic Retinopathy Management Guidelines. Design: Cross‐sectional national survey, primary care setting. Participants: 1000 Australian optometrists across different states. Methods: A self‐administered questionnaire was sent to 1000 optometrists across all states during 2007/2008. Main outcome measures: Use of retinal camera, screening practices/attitudes and behaviour in diabetic retinopathy management. Results: 568 optometrists (57%) responded to the survey. Patients' unpreparedness to drive post dilation (51%) and the fear of angle closure glaucoma (13%) were the two main barriers to optometrists not performing dilated ophthalmoscopy. Those who had strong desire to screen for diabetic retinopathy were more likely to use a retinal camera (p < 0.005). Use of a retinal camera was significantly associated with an increased confidence in detecting clinical signs of diabetic retinopathy including macular oedema (P < 0.001). Optometrists who read the guidelines at least once were 2.5‐times (P < 0.001) more likely to have confidence in detecting macular oedema than those who had never read the guidelines. Although they may be confident in diagnosis, and may use retinal cameras for screening, nearly 60% of optometrists would not refer patients with macular oedema to an ophthalmologist. Conclusions: Despite their self‐reported desire for involvement in diabetic retinopathy, the management of macular oedema by Australian optometrists needs improvement. The use of retinal cameras and promotion of the 2008 NHMRC guidelines should be encouraged to improve overall optometric diabetic retinopathy management, particularly with macular oedema.     

Uso en la práctica clínica,de un método de cribado automatizado de retinopatía diabética derivable mediante un sistema de inteligencia artificial de diagnóstico

Background and objectiveTo compare the diagnostic performance of an autonomous diagnostic artificial intelligence (AI) system for the diagnosis of derivable diabetic retinopathy (RDR) with manual classification.Materials and methodsPatients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes participated in a diabetic retinopathy (DR) screening program between 2011-2012. 2 images of each eye were collected. Unidentifiable retinal images were obtained, one centered on the disc and one on the fovea. The exams were classified with the autonomous AI system and manually by anonymous ophthalmologists. The results of the AI system and manual classification were compared in terms of sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of both (RDR) and diabetic retinopathy with decreased vision (VTDR).Results10,257 retinal inages of 5,630 eyes of 2,680 subjects were included. According to the manual classification, the prevalence of RDR was 4.14% and that of VTDR 2.57%. The AI system recorded 100% (95% CI: 97-100%) sensitivity and 81.82% (95% CI: 80 -83%) specificity for RDR, and 100% (95% CI: 95-100%) of sensitivity and 94.64% (95% CI: 94-95%) of specificity for VTDR.ConclusionsCompared to the manual classification, the autonomous diagnostic AI system registered a high sensitivity (100%) and specificity (82%) in the diagnosis of RDR and macular edema in people with diabetes. Due to its immediate diagnosis, the autonomous diagnostic AI system can increase the accessibility of RDR screening in primary care settings.