Microvascular transfer of the rectus abdominis muscle and myocutaneous flap in rats

A rat microvascular free rectus myocutaneous flap model with a superior epigastric vessel pedicle is presented. The rectus muscle has a predictable ?flow-through”? axial vascular system consisting of superior and inferior epigastric vessels anastomosing under the fascial sheath, and six to seven musculocutaneous perforating branches to the skin. The superior epigastric artery and vein, averaging 0.45 mm and 0.5 mm in diameter, can be used as the vascular pedicle in muscle or myocutaneous flap transplantation. Eight muscle and 15 myocutaneous flaps were transplanted to the groin. The myocutaneous flaps averaged 3.5 cm by 1.2 cm in size; the pedicle length averaged 11 mm. The 5 day survival was 100% for muscle flaps and 67% for myocutaneous flaps. The rectus myocutaneous flap is believed to be the first true myocutaneous model in the rat. © 1993 Wiley-Liss Inc.     

改良胸大肌肌皮瓣在晚期头颈肿瘤手术中的应用

目的探讨一种保留胸大肌功能的改良胸大肌肌皮瓣的制作方法。方法根据胸大肌肌皮瓣的解剖学特点设计皮岛，将胸大肌肌皮瓣的血管蒂完全解剖出来而不携带肌肉，使肌皮瓣成为名副其实的岛状瓣，从而完整保留了胸大肌的锁骨部分以及胸大肌外侧大部分肌纤维。结果2002至2005年采用该方法制做改良胸大肌肌皮瓣29例，其中20例修复口内缺损，4例修复颈部缺损。3例修复腮腺区缺损，2例修复下咽部缺损。术后皮瓣全部成活，随访6个月至2年，所有患者术后进食、吞咽功能良好，语言功能大多恢复良好。结论改良胸大肌肌皮瓣应用于头颈外科克服了传统的胸大肌肌皮瓣的缺点，提高了肌皮瓣血供的可靠性，最大程度地保留了胸大肌的功能和胸部的外形。     

逆行缝匠肌肌皮瓣修复小腿和膝周软组织缺损

目的:探讨逆行缝匠肌肌皮瓣或肌瓣修复小腿和膝周软组织缺损的临床效果。方法:对2006年1月~2014年1月我院收治的9例小腿和膝周软组织缺损患者均采用逆行缝匠肌肌皮瓣或肌瓣转移修复,7例采用肌皮瓣,2例采用肌瓣,封闭创面。供瓣区直接缝合。结果:9例患者缝匠肌肌皮瓣或肌瓣均存活良好,供瓣区愈合良好。1例肌瓣上植皮一期成活。1例患者肌瓣上植皮愈合稍差,经换药后创面愈合;1例患者肌皮瓣远端颜色发暗,经换药后创面愈合。9例患者术后均随访3个月~2年,皮瓣色泽良好,质地柔软,无骨髓炎及窦道形成。结论:采用逆行缝匠肌肌皮瓣或肌瓣是修复小腿和膝周软组织缺损的一种有效方法,临床疗效良好。     

Reconstruction of complex thoracic defects with myocutaneous and muscle flaps. Applications of new flap refinements

This report describes reconstructions of complex thoracic defects with myocutaneous and muscle flaps that were modified by several recent refinements of flap design. These refinements comprise a second generation of myocutaneous and muscle flaps, which have substantially increased versatility and extended applications, as compared with the originally described flaps. These refinements include the following: (1) segmentally split latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major flaps, which transfer only one muscle segment as the flap and leave other segments of the same muscle in situ to preserve motor function; (2) pectoralis major fasciocutaneous flaps, which are extended by abdominal skin and fascia to provide longer, larger flaps; (3) reversed pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi flaps, which are supplied by secondary, distal vascular pedicles that permit flap use when the primary vascular supply is interrupted; and (4) island vascular pedicle muscle flaps, which allow intercostal passage for reconstruction of intrathoracic defects and cavities. The anatomic bases for these flap refinements are described, and the advantages provided are discussed.     

Coverage of complex defects of the shoulder girdle and posterior neck triangle following tumor resection

IntroductionNumerous pedicle and free flaps have been used to cover complex defects of the shoulder girdle and posterior neck triangle following tumor resection. We describe our choice of flap selection in these patients with case examples.Presentation of casesThree cases examples demonstrate our choice of flap selection. In the first case, an anterior shoulder girdle defect is covered by an anteriorly transposed latissimus dorsi muscle flap. The second case demonstrates the coverage of a posterior shoulder girdle defect by a posteriorly transposed latissimus dorsi muscle flap. Finally, the third case demonstrates the coverage of a posterior triangle neck defect using a superiorly transposed pectoralis major muscle flap. All reconstructions utilize muscle flaps (covered by split-thickness skin grafts) and not myocutaneous flaps.DiscussionWe demonstrate that these two pedicle muscle flaps are adequate for coverage of large complex defects of the shoulder girdle and posterior neck triangle. We also demonstrate the advantages of using muscle rather than myocutaneous flaps.ConclusionPedicle latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major muscle flaps are simpler and preferred over free flaps for coverage of complex defects of the shoulder girdle and posterior neck triangle. The use of muscle rather than myocutaneous flaps will reduce the size of the original defect, make flap design easier and reduce donor site morbidity.     

The dissection of the rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap with complete preservation of the anterior rectus sheath.

Harvesting the rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap results in defects in both the rectus abdominis muscle and the anterior rectus sheath, which may be circumvented by dissecting a perforator flap (DIEP flap) instead. However, the latter is associated with a reduction in the number of myocutaneous perforators nourishing the flap, which has been hypothesised to lead to an increased risk of partial flap failure. We present a technical modification that maintains all the feeding perforators within the flap while fully preserving the anterior rectus sheath. The anterior rectus sheath is incised along a line connecting the perforators. A muscle cuff including all the feeding perforators was raised with the flap. This technique was used in 20 consecutive patients. Nine patients underwent free TRAM flap transfers for breast reconstruction (10 flaps), and 11 patients underwent thoracic-wall reconstruction with a superiorly based pedicled flap. The median follow-up was 11 months. One patient with a pedicled flap developed a partial failure that required surgical revision; all other flaps healed spontaneously. One patient in each subset had preoperative abdominal-wall laxity that was partly corrected after surgery; no abdominal bulging or hernia occurred in the other patients. Our results suggest that the technical modification presented here may enable the surgeon to dissect a rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap with maximal perforator-related flap perfusion and minimal donor-site morbidity. An advantage over the DIEP flap is that this technique is applicable to both free and pedicled flaps.     

A proposed protocol for the surgical treatment of pressure sores based on a study of 337 cases

Pressure sores are very common complications following spinal cord injuries and other neurological problems. We present out 15 years' experience in treating pressure sores with myocutaneous flaps. Each anatomical site is considered, divided into those in which cover was successful and those with recurrences. Over the past 8 years careful preoperative planning has been used and specific flaps for each anatomical area. Our home care system is organized to cover both domestic and medical problems. Treatment is determined after examining the wound (anatomical site, staging, infection) and underlying medical, nutritional, and neurological problems. The first choice for ischial ulcers is the VY advancement hamstring myocutaneous flap, sacral ulcers a VY myocutaneous advancement flap of gluteus maximus muscle, and for trochanteric ulcers the myocutaneous rotation flap of tensor fascia lata muscle. Using this protocol the treatment outcome of sacral and ischial ulcers has been encouraging, but in trochanteric ulcers the results have been less satisfactory. This experience supports the use of these flaps in the treatment of pressure sores in para and tetraplegic patients.     

Surgical anatomy of the internal oblique muscle: a practical approach

In recent years pedicled and microvascular free muscle flaps, myocutaneous flaps, and vascularized bone grafts have become well accepted reconstructive techniques in the management of complex defects. The deep circumflex iliac artery-based internal oblique muscle pedicle flap, internal oblique free muscle pedicle flap, internal oblique free muscle flap, and the internal oblique-iliac crest microvascular free flap are the latest additions to the reconstructive surgeons' armamentarium. This report describes the surgical anatomy of the internal oblique muscle and the deep circumflex iliac artery from a practical viewpoint with particular emphasis on the vascular basis of the above mentioned flaps.     

Single stage reconstructions in head and neck surgery using deltopectoral and pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps

Even though free tissue transfers are a routine in many centres, pedicle flaps still have a huge roll to play in our country. There are many centres in the country where pedicle flaps are in use because of logistic problems. Deltopectoral and pectoralis muscle flaps are usually preferred for composite cheek defects. When both these flaps are used in combination it is a two-staged procedure. We describe a single-stage procedure to reconstruct a composite cheek defect with pectoralis major myocutaneous flap for lining and single-stage deltopectoral flap for cover. In the available literature search, single-stage DP and PMMC have not been described for management of composite cheek defect.KEY WORDS: Cheek defect, pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, platysma myocutaneous flap, single-stage deltopectoral flap     

超声血流成像在乳腺癌手术放疗后乳房再造肌皮瓣选择中的应用

目的分析应用彩色多普勒血流成像（CDFI）技术辅助设计轴型肌皮瓣再造乳房的方法和疗效。方法根据乳腺癌手术放疗后局部病灶的特点,选择不同部位的轴型肌皮瓣对26例乳腺癌手术放疗后患者再造乳房,包括同侧背阔肌肌皮瓣、对侧横形腹直肌肌皮瓣和双侧横形腹直肌肌皮瓣,术前传统方法设计肌皮瓣后,应用具有高分辨率的多功能彩色多普勒血流成像仪检测轴型肌皮瓣供血动脉的起止点、外径、血管走向和长度等,根据检测结果再次设计肌皮瓣并转移至胸壁重建乳房,并将术中所见血管情况与CDFI的显示结果进行对照和比较。结果在CDFI探测肌皮瓣轴型血管中,发现有1例胸背动脉血流缓慢,管壁粗糙,动脉硬化较明显;其余血管探测结果均显示血流顺畅,管壁光滑,无栓塞、硬化现象,亦无血管缺如现象。CDFI所检测供血动脉的起止点、外径、血管走向和解剖学层次均可清晰显示,与术中所见完全一致,术后26例轴型肌皮瓣全部成活,伤口愈合良好;再造的乳房在形态及感觉等方面均满意。结论CDFI对轴型肌皮瓣供血血管判断具有简单、直观和无创的特点,为确定轴型肌皮瓣移植术提供更为科学、准确的依据。     

Reconstruction of perforating defects of the maxillofacial region with double flaps]

OBJECTIVE: To solve the problems in restoration of perforating (full thickness) defects in the maxillofacial region. METHODS: Double flaps have been used to reconstruct the defects. Forty-five patients with full thickness defects on the maxillofacial region were treated with 90 flaps, including 58 (64%) deltopectoral flaps, the platysma myocutaneous flap, pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, sternomastoid myocutaneous flap, forehead flap and latissimus myocutaneous flap. RESULTS: The operation results were satisfactory. Of the 90 flaps, 87 flaps survived completely or subtotally with a successful rate of 97%. Three flaps sustained total or large necrosis. CONCLUSION: A number of flaps can be used for repairing the full thickness defects of the maxillofacial region, especially the deltopectoral flap, the platysma myocutaneous flap and the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap. They can provide excellent external cover or internal lining. They are well vascularized, hairless and colour-matched.     

面颌部洞穿缺损的双皮瓣及肌皮瓣修复

目的为解决由各种原因引起的面颌部洞穿性缺损的修复问题。方法采用两个带蒂的组织瓣搭配使用修复面颌部洞穿缺损４５例,共用组织瓣９０个。其中胸三角皮瓣５８个（占６４％）,依次是颈阔肌肌皮瓣,胸大肌肌皮瓣,额部皮瓣,胸锁乳突肌肌皮瓣,背阔肌肌皮瓣等。结果４５例洞穿性缺损所用９０个组织瓣中全部成活及绝大部分成活者８７个,成活率达９７％,全部或大部分坏死的３个（占３％）。结论面颌部洞穿性缺损即刻修复是可行的。修复洞穿缺损有多种皮瓣、肌皮瓣可供选择;提出胸三角皮瓣、颈阔肌肌皮瓣、胸大肌肌皮瓣等是修复面颌部洞穿性缺损的优质组织瓣。临床应用中取得了功能与外形同时修复的效果。     

面颌部洞穿缺损的双皮瓣及肌皮瓣修复

目的为解决由各种原因引起的面颌部洞穿性缺损的修复问题。方法采用两个带蒂的组织瓣搭配使用修复面颌部洞穿缺损45例,共用组织瓣90个。其中胸三角皮瓣58个(占64%),依次是颈阔肌肌皮瓣,胸大肌肌皮瓣,额部皮瓣,胸锁乳突肌肌皮瓣,背阔肌肌皮瓣等。结果45例洞穿性缺损所用90个组织瓣中全部成活及绝大部分成活者87个,成活率达97%,全部或大部分坏死的3个(占3%)。结论面颌部洞穿性缺损即刻修复是可行的。修复洞穿缺损有多种皮瓣、肌皮瓣可供选择;提出胸三角皮瓣、颈阔肌肌皮瓣、胸大肌肌皮瓣等是修复面颌部洞穿性缺损的优质组织瓣。临床应用中取得了功能与外形同时修复的效果。     

Reconstruction of burned lower extremities by free flaps

Summary Three latissimus dorsi muscle flaps with skin grafts, one latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap, and one scapular flap were used in reconstruction of deep burns of the heels and calf caused by various agents. The follow-up period was 11 to 46 months. Of the five patients treated, two sustained electrical injuries, two had contact burns and one suffered a degloving injury with a contact burn resulting from a car accident. The latissimus dorsi muscle flaps with skin grafts gave excellent results in reconstruction of the calf and ankle areas due to their large caliber vessels and versatility. The latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap was indicated in a case with extensive soft tissue loss on the sole of the foot with stiffness of the ankle joint in plantar flexion. A non-sensory scapular flap was satisfactory for reconstruction of the medial half of the heel since the remaining lateral half of the heel provided adequate sensation for weight-bearing and protection. Early reconstruction of the burned lower part of the leg with free flaps shortens hospitalization and prevents further extension of the injury. Reconstruction of a burned distal lower extremity provides a challenge for the reconstructive surgeon due to limited availability of local tissue; there is durable soft tissue in the weight-bearing area and a relatively poor blood supply compared to other areas of the body. The basic requirement in the treatment of a full thickness burn is early debridement and immediate coverage of the defect with a skin graft or a well vascularized flap. Even though multiple local flaps, such as axial [7, 17], muscle [1], musculocutaneous [5], fasciocutaneous [11], and island flaps [4], have been described. These flaps are useful in relatively small wounds with undamaged sourrounding tissues. Electrical injuries are manifested in a variety of clinical and pathologic ways with early, as well as delayed, tissue damage complicating reconstruction. With the advent and refinement of microvascular techniques, it has become possible to reconstruct extensive defects of the distal lower extremity with either free muscle flaps with skin grafts [8], myocutaneous free flaps [10], or axial free flaps [18]. This paper relates our experience in reconstruction of extensive defects of the lower extremities caused by various burning agents.     

Postauricular myocutaneous flap in otologic surgery

Management of a large mastoid defect resulting from skull base operations or extensive surgical procedures because of chronic ear disease continues to challenge the otologic surgeon. Various local muscle or periosteal rotation flaps have been used to help reduce the size of the postoperative mastoid cavity. With these techniques there are problems with flap retraction and epithelization that may result in delayed healing or chronic drainage. Closure of the ear canal and tissue obliteration of the mastoid results in a maximal conductive hearing loss. A postauricular myocutaneous flap based on the occipital artery and sternocleidomastoid muscle has been used effectively to reconstruct mastoid defects after both surgical procedures for chronic ear disease and skull base operations. The skin muscle flap reduces the mastoid cavity and promotes rapid healing of the surgical defect. Although postauricular myocutaneous flaps have been found to be reliable, their viability may be compromised by arterial embolization used in larger glomus tumors. Indications for and creation of a postauricular myocutaneous flap, with results in 18 cases, are presented. (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998;118:743-6.)     

多种区域组织瓣在口腔颌面部缺损修复中的应用分析

目的:寻找口腔颌面部缺损的理想修复方法。方法:对97例口腔颌面部缺损,根据缺损部位、性质、范围,分别采用鼻唇沟皮瓣(6例),邻位滑行皮瓣(13例),Abbe瓣(4例),胸大肌肌皮瓣(17例),颈阔肌肌皮瓣(14例),下斜方肌肌皮瓣(4例),前臂皮瓣(13例),额瓣(6例),颞肌筋膜瓣修复(6例),舌瓣(11例),腓骨肌皮瓣(3例),观察修复效果。结果:97例区域组织瓣中,胸大肌肌皮瓣坏死1例,下斜方肌肌皮瓣尖端坏死1例,另1例胸大肌皮瓣术后放疗后坏死(术后4月),其余皮瓣存活,外形基本满意。所有患者均能进食,97%能正常饮食(食饭),其余可流质饮食。舌、腭、咽、口底肿物T3以上,术后语音轻度影响。结论:采用以上多种区域组织瓣修复口腔颌面部缺损,建议应尽可能采用邻近带蒂皮瓣;对于较大缺损修复主要是修复组织缺损,采用不同组织修复缺损,对进食、语音影响似区别不大,日后尚需作深入研究。     

Soft tissue reconstruction with the superior gluteal artery perforator flap

The development of the perforator flap technique revolutionized the practice of soft tissue transfer. The main goal of this technique is muscle sparing at the donor site for function and strength. Meanwhile, this concept is being widely applied for reconstruction of tissues throughout the entire body. Perforator flaps are the ultimate upgrade of the well-known myocutaneous flaps. Theoretically, any myocutaneous flap can be harvested as a perforator flap if skin resurfacing is needed. Although the DIEP flap, the anterolateral thigh flap, and the TAP flap are probably more frequently used for breast, trunk, and upper and lower limb reconstruction, as well as head and neck reconstruction, the SGAP flap takes its own position in the large group of perforator flaps and has its own specific indications.     

Pectoralis major myocutaneous island flap revisited: A sentinel vessel simplifying dissection

Surgical extirpation of advanced cancers of the head and neck almost always requires extensive resections that invariably necessitate some sort of large flap for reconstruction. In recent years immediate one-stage reconstruction of large defects in the area of the tonsillar fossa and the pharynx have been facilitated by the development of myocutaneous flaps, especially the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap. With this flap, immediate one-step reconstruction at the time of the initial operation is accomplished. Myocutaneous flaps, however, require more skill and concentration in their elevation than do skin flaps in order to preserve the axial feeder vessel running along the underside of the muscle and supplying the all-important perforating vessels to the overlying muscles and skin. We have noticed a constant perforating vessel, approximately 2-cm long, coming off the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial artery medial to the cephalic vein and 2 cm below the border of the clavicle. This pierces the substance of the overlying pectoralis major muscle and runs anteriorly into the subcutaneous fatty hypodermal layer. This vessel accurately localizes the position of the proximal portion of the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial artery before elevation of the pectoralis major muscle has been started. The imaginary line joining this vessel and the island skin flap allows simplicity in elevation of the muscle pedicle and obviates fear of transecting the arterial supply to the skin island during the dissection. We have found the vessel to be present in 26 consecutive cases over the last 12 months. We present our findings of a sentinel vessel localizing the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial artery as a guide in liberating the muscular paddle and axial artery in elevation of pectoralis major myocutaneous island flaps.     

The gracilis flap revisited

The gracilis muscle or myocutaneous flap is a Mathes and Nahai neurovascular flap type II. It can be used either as a pedicled flap, or as a free flap. Since 1983, 21 gracilis muscle flaps were used in 19 patients at this department; 15 were pedicled while six were free flaps. Two pedicled flaps were lost, possibly due to an intraoperative spasm of the feeding artery. The indications for using the gracilis muscle are discussed, and the results with an average follow-up of more than a decade are presented. Received: 6 December 1999 / Accepted: 7 June 2000