Anti-inflammatory effects of Scutellaria baicalensis water extract on LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Aim of the study

The root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Labiatae), also known as Scutellariae Radix, possesses anticancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties. And it is one of the most widespread herbal remedies used in Oriental medicine. In the present study, we investigated the effects of Scutellariae Radix water extract (SR) on proinflammatory mediators secreted from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Material and methods

Cell viability was assessed by MTT assay and nitric oxide (NO) concentration in the cultured medium was determined by the Griess reaction. Various Cytokines released from LPS-induced Raw 264.7 cells were measured in the cell culture supernatants using a multiplex bead array assay based on xMAP technology.

Results

We found that SR significantly inhibited the production of NO, interleukin (IL)-3, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-17, interferon-inducible protein (IP)-10, keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells at the concentrations of 25, 50, 100, 200 μg/ml (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

These results suggest that SR has anti-inflammatory activity related with its inhibition of NO, cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor production in macrophages.     

黄芩及其有效成分抗菌作用新进展

近年来,随着免疫功能下降人群的不断增多,细菌/真菌感染率大幅上升,伴随耐药现象的出现,临床可供选择的抗菌药物越来越有限。黄芩Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi为唇形科黄芩属多年生草本,黄芩及其有效成分具有抗炎、抗氧化、抗肿瘤和抗菌等多重药理作用,尤其显著的抗细菌抗真菌活性对于治疗日渐增多的耐药性细菌/真菌感染有重要意义。该文结合国内外对黄芩及其有效成分的研究,对近年来其抗菌作用及机制研究进展作一综述。     

黄芩对干旱复水的生理生态响应

为探讨黄芩对短期干旱复水的生理生态响应。测定分析不同水分处理黄芩短期干旱复水期间叶片光合作用和叶绿素荧光参数、根中保护酶及黄酮合成关键酶活性等生理生化表征指标及根中黄芩苷、黄芩素积累的动态变化。结果显示,随干旱加剧各处理黄芩P_n,T_r,G_s,F_v/F_m下降,F_o升高;处理Ⅰ,Ⅱ黄芩根中SOD,POD活性对干旱响应比处理Ⅲ黄芩早;各处理黄芩的黄芩苷积累响应时间和增加幅度存在差异。复水后黄芩各指标有所恢复。因此,干旱导致土壤含水量降低,黄芩光合作用发生改变,破坏了抗氧化代谢平衡。黄芩启动自身防御机制,SOD,POD等保护酶,PAL,C4H等黄酮类代谢关键酶以及黄芩苷,黄芩素等黄酮类化合物协同作用,减少活性氧对细胞的伤害。     

环境因子对黄芩光合生理和黄酮成分影响研究

探讨环境因子与光合作用对黄芩生长发育和活性成分含量的影响。观测黄芩花果期光合生理指标、黄芩黄酮类成分日变化,记录环境参数。采用通径分析和灰色关联度分析方法进行数据分析。结果表明,光合有效辐射（PAR）,土壤含水量（SWC）是影响黄芩光合作用的重要环境因子。SWC,RH,C_a是影响黄芩苷含量重要环境因子,PAR,大气压力（P_o）,大气温度（T_a）是影响黄芩素含量的重要环境因子。为有针对性的开展环境因子调控,实现黄芩的优质高产提供理论依据。     

黄芩药材主、侧根中黄酮类成分含量的比较及其相关性研究

目的:分析比较黄芩药材主、侧根中黄酮类成分的含量,并对其相关性进行研究,为黄芩品种系统选育过程中为了使主根继续繁殖以保存优良种质,而采用侧根估测整体的黄酮类成分含量提供理论依据.方法:以黄芩中5个主要的黄酮类成分黄芩苷、汉黄芩苷、黄芩素、汉黄芩素和千层纸素A为指标,采用高效液相色谱法对黄芩药材主、侧根中5个黄酮类成分的含量进行测定,并对侧根与整体中的黄酮类成分含量进行相关与回归分析.结果:黄芩主根上部、主根下部、侧根及整体中的黄芩苷、汉黄芩苷含量无显著性差异,主根下部的黄芩素、汉黄芩素及千层纸素A含量与主根上部差异显著;侧根中只有汉黄芩素的含量与整体存在显著性差异,其余均无统计学差异.相关与回归分析显示,侧根与整体之间各成分均呈显著的正相关,除汉黄芩素的决定系数较小外,其余化学成分均较高.结论:黄芩药材主、侧根中的黄酮类成分含量分布较均匀,在黄芩品种系统选育过程中为了使主根继续繁殖以保存优良种质,可采用侧根估测黄芩整体的黄酮类成分含量.     

光照对黄芩黄酮类活性成分积累及其相关基因表达的影响

目的:研究光照对黄芩悬浮细胞中黄芩苷、黄芩素的积累及相关基因表达的影响。方法:采用HPLC法检测黄芩悬浮细胞中黄芩苷、黄芩素的含量,应用半定量RT-PCR的方法对相关基因的表达进行分析。结果:光照对黄芩悬浮细胞中有效成分的积累有显著的促进作用,与黑暗条件相比,细胞生长13 d后黄芩苷含量显著增长了806.1%,黄芩素含量显著增长了42.5%,PAL基因在光照条件下的转录水平高于在黑暗条件,光照条件下UBGAT同黄芩素显著相关(r=-0.995)。结论:光诱导对黄芩悬浮细胞中有效成分的积累有显著的促进作用,光诱导刺激了与有效成分的积累相关基因(PAL,UBGAT)的表达。     

黄连黄芩及配伍诱导对大鼠肝微粒体5种CYP450亚酶活性的影响

探讨黄连和黄芩配伍代谢性相互作用的机制.大鼠连续ig黄连、黄芩及药对提取物7d诱导肝药酶后,采用cocktail探针底物与肝微粒体体外温孵法,通过HPLC同时检测肝微粒体中5种探针底物代谢消除率,评价各给药组对大鼠肝微粒体CYP450酶活性的影响.与空白组相比,黄连对CYP2D6,CYP1A2呈显著抑制作用;黄芩对CYP1 A2,CYP2E1,CYP2C9具有显著抑制作用.黄连、黄芩按1∶1配伍后仅对CYP1 A2显示抑制作用,对CYP2D6,CYP3A4则呈显著的激活作用;而黄连、黄芩按2∶1配伍后对代谢酶的激活作用消失,表现为对CYP1A2,CYP2C9的显著抑制.结果表明黄连与黄芩对P450酶主要表现为抑制作用,二者按一定比例配伍后作用特点发生改变,呈现出激活和抑制的双重性,且与配伍比例相关.推测黄连与黄芩配伍对代谢酶的抑制和诱导作用是其发挥减毒增效作用的原因之一.     

PEG胁迫对黄芩黄酮类有效成分积累及相关基因表达的影响

目的:研究不同程度PEG胁迫对黄芩悬浮细胞中黄芩苷、黄芩素的积累及相关基因表达的影响.方法:采用HPLC法检测黄芩悬浮细胞中黄芩苷、黄芩素的含量,用酶标仪检测细胞内游离脯氨酸含量,并用半定量RT-PCR的方法对相关基因的表达进行分析.结果与结论:黄芩悬浮细胞内游离脯氨酸含量随PEG胁迫浓度升高而升高,10％ PEG胁迫黄芩悬浮细胞可以模拟干旱条件,提高悬浮细胞PAL基因表达量且会促进黄芩素的积累.20％ PEG胁迫提高了UBGAT基因的表达量,但同时APX酶活性的提高抑制了黄芩素参与清除活性氧,导致了黄芩素向黄芩苷的转化.     

Anti-inflammatory activity of a water extract of Acorus calamus L. leaves on keratinocyte HaCaT cells

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Acorus calamus L., sweet flag, is a well-known medicinal plant that grows worldwide wildly along swamps, rivers, and lakes.

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of Acorus calamus leaf (ACL) extract and to explore its mechanism of action on human keratinocyte HaCaT cells.

Materials and methods

HaCaT cells treated with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) and peptidoglycan (PGN) induced the inflammatory reactions. The anti-inflammatory activities of ACL were investigated using RT-PCR, ELISA assay, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence staining.

Results

HaCaT cells induced the pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-8 (IL-8) and/or interleukin-6 (IL-6) expressions after treatment with polyI:C or PGN. ACL inhibited the expression of IL-8 and IL-6 RNA and protein levels, and attenuated the activation of NF-κB and IRF3 after polyI:C treatment. ACL also inhibited expression of IL-8 and activation of NF-κB following PGN induction.

Conclusions

These results suggest that ACL inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines through multiple mechanisms and may be a novel and effective anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of skin diseases.     

Inhibitory effects of Scutellaria baicalensis extract on hepatic stellate cells through inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest and activating ERK-dependent apoptosis via Bax and caspase pathway

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The bioactive components extracted from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (SB) have been widely used for anti-cancer, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation and modulating the immune response.

Aim of the study

The purpose of this study is to verify the inhibitory effect and the underlying mechanisms of Scutellaria baicalensis ethanol extract (SBEE) on activated hepatic stellate cells which play a central role in liver fibrogenesis.

Materials and methods

Dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-administrated rat model was applied to evaluate the anti-fibrotic effect of SBEE in vivo. Flow cytometric analysis and immunoblotting were then used to further investigate the molecular mechanisms by which Scutellaria baicalensis extract induces HSC-T6 cell death.

Results

Hepatic collagen contents and alpha-smooth muscle actin levels were remarkably reduced by treating with SBEE. 100 μg/mL SBEE-induced apoptosis of HSC-T6 cell was characterized with elevated levels of activated caspase-3, poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage, and release of cytochrome c into the cytosol in a time-dependent manner. A 24 h treatment of SBEE induced G₂/M cell cycle arrest with increased expression of p21 and downregulation of cdc2 and cyclin B1 protein levels. Again, SBEE induced bax expression with concomitant decrease of bcl-2 and upregulated the p53 and MAPK signaling in HSC-T6 cells.

Conclusions

These findings demonstrated that SBEE could prevent hepatic fibrosis by promoting ERK-p53 pathways which may in turn cause G₂/M cell cycle arrest and activate caspase system resulting in final apoptosis of HSC-T6 cells.     

Gleditsia sinensis thorns inhibit the production of NO through NF-kappaB suppression in LPS-stimulated macrophages

The thorns of Gleditsia sinensis LAM. (Leguminosae) have been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases including swelling, suppuration, carbuncle and skin diseases in China and Korea. In this study, we investigated the mechanism responsible for anti-inflammatory effects of Gleditsia sinensis thorns in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The aqueous extract of Gleditsia sinensis thorns (AEGS) inhibited LPS-induced NO secretion as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, without affecting cell viability. Furthermore, AEGS suppressed LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation, phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaB-alpha, phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). These results suggest that AEGS has the inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO production and iNOS expression in macrophages through blockade in the phosphorylation of MAPKs, following IkappaB-alpha degradation and NF-kappaB activation.     

Molecular mechanism of capillarisin-mediated inhibition of MyD88/TIRAP inflammatory signaling in in vitro and in vivo experimental models

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Artemisia capillaris Thunberg (Compositae) have been used as traditional medicine as a diuretic, liver protective agent, and for amelioration of inflammatory and analgesic disorders. The present study was carried out to establish the scientific rationale for treating inflammation and to find active principles from A. capillaris.The aim of the present study is to investigate the possible anti-inflammatory mechanism of the major component (capillarisin) isolated from A. capillaris via inhibition of MyD88/TIRAP inflammatory signaling both in vitro and in vivo models.

Materials and methods

The nitrite, PGE₂, and TNF-α productions were evaluated by Griess reagent and ELISA kits. The protein and mRNA expression levels were investigated by Western blot and RT-PCR. The NF-κB and AP-1 DNA-binding was performed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The CFA- and carrageenan-induced paw edema was performed in ICR mice in which 20 and 80 mg/kg body weight of capillarisin was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.).

Results

The results demonstrated that pretreatment with capillarisin effectively inhibited the LPS-induced activation of NF-κB, Akt, and MAP kinase-activated inflammatory genes, which is mediated by MyD88 and TIRAP. Treatment with capillarisin reduced the mRNA and protein levels of iNOS and COX-2 in RAW 264.7 cells as assessed by RT-PCR and Western blot. Capillarisin suppressed LPS-induced inhibitory kappa kinase (IKK) phosphorylation and the degradation of inhibitory kappa B (IκBα) and prevented the nuclear translocation of p65 and p50. Capillarisin also exhibited a promising inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced NF-κB and AP-1 DNA binding activity based on an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The LPS-induced activation of p-JNK, p-p38, p-ERK, and p-Akt was significantly inhibited. In addition, the TNF-α level in the media was effectively reduced by capillarisin. In vivo experimental analysis revealed that capillarisin (20 and 80 mg/kg, i.p.) inhibited complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-and carrageenan-induced paw edema, nitrite production in plasma, and TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

Conclusion

The results presented here demonstrate that capillarisin has consistent anti-inflammatory properties and acts by inhibiting inflammatory mediators in in vitro and in vivo experimental models, and suggest its potential utility in the control of inflammatory disorders.     

Anti-inflammatory activity of Chrysanthemum indicum extract in acute and chronic cutaneous inflammation

Aim of the study

Although Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (Compositae) has long been used in traditional Korean, Chinese, Japanese medicine to treat various immune-related diseases the underlying mechanism(s) by which these effects are induced remains to be defined in vivo model system. We investigated the effects of 70% ethanolic extract from Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (CIE) on skin inflammation in mice.

Materials and methods

Production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), activation of myeloperoxidase, and histological assessment were examined in acute and chronic skin inflammation using 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced mouse ear edema.

Results

CIE inhibited topical edema in the mouse ear, following administration at 200 mg/kg (i.p.), leading to substantial reductions in skin thickness and tissue weight, inflammatory cytokine production, neutrophil-mediated myeloperoxidase activity, and various histopathological indicators. Furthermore, CIE was effective at reducing inflammatory damage induced by chronic TPA exposure.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that CIE is an effective anti-inflammatory agent in murine phorbol ester-induced dermatitis, and suggest that the extract may have therapeutic potential in a variety of immune-related cutaneous diseases.     

Biomolecular evidence of anti-inflammatory effects by Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract in rodent cells

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root is widely used in Asia as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. This research investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract (CRE) using RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and carrageenan- (CA-) induced rat paw edema.

Materials and methods

Production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in the culture supernatant, mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2, protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the extract were assayed. In addition, the effect of CRE on acute inflammation in vivo was observed using CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay. The changes on the histopathology and histomorphometry of hind paw skins—dorsum and ventrum pedis were observed using CA-treated rats.

Results

Treatment with CRE (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/mL) resulted in inhibited levels of protein expression of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, and MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38) as well as production of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, and PGE₂ induced by LPS. Consistent with these results, CRE reduced the LPS-induced expressions of these cytokines, iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner. In particular, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay showed an anti-edema effect of CRE. In addition, treatment with CRE resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of CA-induced increases of skin thickness, mast cell degranulation, and infiltrated inflammatory, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2-positive cells in both dorsum and ventrum pedis skin, respectively.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that CRE exhibits anti-inflammatory activities via decreasing production of pro-inflammatory mediators through suppression of the pathways of NF-κB and MAPKs in LPS-induced macrophage cells. In addition, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay show an anti-edema effect of CRE. Our findings also support the traditional use of CRE in the inflammatory symptoms of rheumatic arthritis and acute icteric hepatitis. Thus, CRE may have therapeutic potential for a variety of inflammation-mediated diseases and may be developed into potent anti-inflammatory drugs.     

Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages by aqueous extract of Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The wild basil Clinopodium vulgare L. is commonly used in Bulgarian folk medicine for treatment of irritated skin, mastitis- and prostatitis-related swelling, as well as for some disorders accompanied with significant degree of inflammation (e.g. gastric ulcers, diabetes, and cancer).

Aim of study

To determine the effect of aqueous extract of Clinopodium vulgare L. on LPS-induced inflammatory responses of murine RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Materials and methods

Cell cytotoxicity was evaluated by MTT assay. Protein expression levels were monitored by Western blot analysis. Production of NO and PGE₂ was measured by the Griess colorimetric method and enzyme immunoassay, respectively. Activation of MMP-9 was visualized by gelatin zymography. Cytokine levels were determined by BioPlex assay. Intracellular ROS and free radical scavenging potential were measured by DCFH-DA and DPPH method, respectively. Xanthine oxidase activity was evaluated spectrophotometrically.

Results

The extract suppresses NF-κB activation by preventing Iκ-B phosphorylation and inhibits the phosphorylation of p38 and SAPK/JNK MAPKs. It down-regulates iNOS expression which manifests as a drastic decrease of NO production, inhibits MMP-9 activation, but does not affect COX-2 protein levels and reduces only slightly the released PGE₂. Secretion of IL-1β and Il-10 is greatly reduced, whereas suppression of TNF-α and GM-CSF production is less dramatic. The extract has strong free radical scavenging properties and exerts inhibitory effect on xanthine oxidase activity, which lowers the levels of intracellular ROS.

Conclusion

The study provides evidence for the anti-inflammatory potential of Clinopodium vulgare L. aqueous extract.     

Anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extracts of the root of Lilium lancifolium on LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells

Aim of the study

Lilium lancifolium is commonly used to treat bronchitis, pneumonia, etc. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extracts of the root of Lilium lancifolium (LL extracts) in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells.

Material and methods

Levels of NO, PGE₂ and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) in the supernatant fraction were determined using sandwich ELISA. Expression of COX-2 and iNOS, phosphorylation of MAPK subgroups (ERK and JNK), and NF-κB activation in extracts were detected via Western blot and immunocytochemistry assays.

Results

The LL extract significantly inhibited NO, PGE₂, IL-6 and TNF-α production in LPS-stimulated cells, and suppressed iNOS and COX-2 expression. A mechanism-based study showed that phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK and translocation of the NF-κB p65 subunit into nuclei were inhibited by the LL extract. Furthermore, interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 production in Con A-induced splenocytes was suppressed.

Conclusion

These results indicate that anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extracts from Lilium lancifolium are due to downregulation of iNOS and COX-2 via suppression of NF-κB activation and nuclear translocation as well as blocking of ERK and JNK signaling in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells.     

Anti-inflammatory effects of Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken ethanol extract in acute and chronic cutaneous inflammation

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken (Crassulaceae), popularly known in Brazil as “folha-da-fortuna”, is a plant species used in folk medicine for the external and internal treatment of inflammation, infection, wound, burn, boil, ulcers and gastritis, and several other diseases. The present study aimed to perform the chemical characterization and the evaluation of the topical anti-inflammatory effect of the ethanol extract of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves (EEBP) in acute and chronic mice ear edema models induced by different irritant agents.

Materials and methods

The EEBP chemical characterization was performed by HPLC–UV DAD. Ear edema on Swiss mice was induced by the topical application of Croton oil (single and multiple applications), arachidonic acid, phenol, capsaicin and ethyl phenylpropiolate (EPP). The topical anti-inflammatory effect of EEBP was evaluated by measuring the ear weight (acute inflammation models) and thickness (chronic inflammation model). Histopathological analyses of ear tissue samples sensitized with Croton oil (single and multiple applications) were also performed.

Results

The flavonoids rutin, quercetin, luteolin and luteolin7-O-β-d-glucoside were detected in EEBP. Topical application of EEBP significantly (P<0.001) inhibited the ear edema induced by Croton oil single application (inhibition of 57%), arachidonic acid (inhibition of 67%), phenol (inhibition of 80%), capsaicin (inhibition of 72%), EPP (inhibition of 75%) and Croton oil multiple application (55% after 9 days). Histopathological analyses confirmed the topical anti-inflammatory effect of EEBP since it was observed reduction of edema, epidermal hyperplasia, inflammatory cells infiltration and vasodilation.

Conclusions

The results suggest that EEBP is effective as a topical anti-inflammatory agent in acute and chronic inflammatory processes possibly due to inhibition of arachidonic acid pathway, which justify the traditional use of Bryophyllum pinnatum as a remedy for skin disorders.