Equity of colorectal cancer screening: cross-sectional analysis of National Bowel Cancer Screening Program data for South Australia

Objective: The National Bowel Cancer Screening Program (NBCSP) is a population‐based screening program based on a mailed screening invitation and immunochemical faecal occult blood test. Initial published evidence from the NBCSP concurs with international evidence on similar colorectal cancer screening programs about the unequal participation by different population sub‐groups. The aim of the paper is to present an analysis of the equity of the NBCSP for South Australia, using the concept of horizontal equity, in order to identify geographical areas and population groups which may benefit from targeted approaches to increase participation rates in colorectal cancer screening. Method: De‐identified data from the NBCSP (February 2007 to July 2008) were provided by Medicare Australia. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were undertaken in order to identify the predictors of participation rates in the NBCSP. Results: The overall participation rate was 46.1%, although this was statistically significantly different (p<0.001) by gender (42.6% for males and 49.5% for females), socioeconomic status (40% in most deprived quintile through to 48.1% in most affluent quintile) and remoteness (45.6% for metropolitan, 46% for remote and 48.6% for rural areas). These findings were confirmed in multivariate analyses. Of the NBCSP participants, 0.24% (CI 95% 0.20–0.30) identified themselves as Indigenous and 8% (CI 95% 7.7–8.3) reported speaking a language other than English at home. Conclusion: Findings from this study suggest inequities in participation in the NBCSP on the basis of gender, geographical location, Indigenous status and language spoken at home.     

Interventions to reduce socioeconomic health differences: A review of the international literature

The objective of this study was to review information on evaluatedinterventions to reduce socioeconomic health differences (SEHD)and analyse studies to identify possible conditions for success.The analysed interventions were from published and unpublishedsources. They were evaluated in terms of socioeconomic healthoutcomes. Ninety-eight publications on actual interventionsto reduce SEHD and 31 so-called ‘grey literature’interventions were identified. Many of the interventions describedare reported to be effective. Many of the local experimentalinterventions, however, were not formally evaluated. Structuralmeasures appear to be effective most often, but cannot be takento affect all determinants. Interventions often Involve healtheducation. This, however, only appears to be successful if providinginformation is combined with personal support or structuralmeasures. Many very creative interventions to reduce SEHD havebeen reported. Several appear to be effective, but all addressonly a small aspect of health inequalities. Regrettably thelack of standardized measures and a common methodology hamperour ability to integrate and compare the results. However, allthe studies show that there is room for improvement in our existinghealth policies to reach everyone in our population to the samedegree of effectiveness.     

Meeting the challenge of falls prevention at the population level: a community-based intervention with older people in Australia

Older people form a large and growing segment of our population,experience disproportionately more illness and require moreuse of health services than any other group. This differentialis largely due to falls, which are the leading cause of injuryfor those aged 65 plus. The North Coast ‘Stay On YourFeet’ programme is a 4-year multi-strategic, community-basedintervention to address this problem among 80000 older residents.This paper presents key results of the first 18 months of theprogramme. It demonstrates potential achievements of this typeof intervention and examines some barriers. Programme effectwas measured quasi-experimentally by monitoring indicators ofawareness, knowledge, attitudes and risk factors via a telephonesurvey with random cohorts in intervention and control areas.After allowing for baseline covariates, the intervention wassignificantly associated with: raised awareness both of theproblem of falling and its preventability; improved knowledgeof the risk factors for falling; and a higher self-rated riskof falling. As expected, there is as yet no population changein falls rate. Initial changes shown in risk factors for fallingraise interesting challenges. A reduction in physical activitymay indicate that older people, now more aware of risk, arebeing advised to restrict their activities. An increase in proportionof older people taking medications which may cause unsteadinessalso presents a challenge. However, a concomitant decrease inreported dizziness may indicate that medications are now bettermanaged. This evaluation shows that in 18 months, a well-fundedand managed community-based falls prevention programme can achievechanges in awareness, knowledge and attitudes but that continuedintervention is required to substantially change behaviouralrisk factor profiles and the likelihood of an older person falling.     

Risk and protective factors that affect adolescent reproductive health in developing countries: A structured literature review

Abstract

The primary focus of this article is to determine which risk and protective factors are most important to adolescent reproductive health in developing countries. A comprehensive and systematic literature search was conducted on studies that examined factors in relation to the following outcomes: ever had premarital sex, condom use, pregnancy, early childbearing, sexually transmitted infections, and HIV. While the search identified over 11,000 publications, only 61 were retained for the final analysis. The results show that factors which were significantly associated to the outcomes were primarily related to the adolescents themselves. In fact, very few factors outside the individual were found to be related to sexual risk behaviours. This contrasts to similar research conducted among youth samples in the US. While this review confirms the strong need for a broader research base on the risk and protective factors related to adolescent sexual and reproductive health in developing countries, it also does identify key factors that can be addressed through innovative programmes and policies to help improve adolescent reproductive health in the developing world.     

1 000名老年人卫生服务需求及社区卫生服务意向研究

目的　为了了解老年人的卫生需求,更好地开展社区卫生服务。方法　采用整群随机抽样并进行入户调查的方法,对１ ０００ 名６０ 岁及以上老年人进行了调查。结果　老年人的２ 周患病率为４６７－０ ‰;患有慢性病者占６４－８ ％ ,其中３５－７ ％ 的患有２ 种或２ 种以上慢性病;残疾率占９－５ ％ ,８５ 岁以上者残疾率达３７－９ ％ ,１０－１ ％ 的人的生活活动能力失能;２３－８ ％ 的对卫生服务最为迫切;６２－８ ％ 的老人愿意到社区接受卫生服务,因经济困难应住院而未住院占５８－３ ％ 。结论　社区卫生服务应尽快建立并完善,尤其应针对目前老年人的需求和经济状况,开展一些老年人需要的且能接受的社区卫生服务     

Writing the risk of cancer: Cancer risk in public policy

In this paper we examine how cancer risk is written in cancer policy documents from the English speaking OECD nations. We offer an audit of the multiple ways in which cancer risk is conceptualised and presented in health policy and professional contexts with the long term aim of comparing this with lay conceptualisations. Our study sampled cancer policy documents produced by six nations, the World Health Organization and the International Union for Cancer Control since 2000 and analysed them iteratively through questions and codes. Whilst the documents contained a comprehensive range of concepts and locations for cancer risk, our analysis found two predominant representations: firstly, well established metaphors that depict cancer as uniformly dreadful and life threatening; and secondly, through a concentration on five behavioural risk factors (tobacco smoking, drinking alcohol, inadequate nutrition, sun exposure and physical inactivity) and one bodily state (overweight). We discuss the implications of this dual focus and of other tensions within ideas about cancer risk that we identified for risk communication.     

Female victims of intimate partner physical domestic violence (IPP-DV), California 1998

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to identify factors associated with adult female victims of intimate partner physical domestic violence (IPP-DV) in California and to estimate statewide IPP-DV prevalence. METHODS: We analyzed data from the 1998 California Women's Health Survey, a random, computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) survey of 4006 California women aged > or = 18, conducted by the California Department of Health Services. RESULTS: Data from the survey indicated that 6% of the women reported that in the previous 12 months, their intimate partners threw objects at them, or hit them with an object, or kicked, pushed, slapped, choked, beat up, or threatened them with a gun or a knife. Odds ratio (OR) analyses controlling for age and race/ethnicity suggest that a large number of factors are associated statistically with IPP-DV victims. These factors include feelings of ill physical and mental health; pregnancies at early age; smoking status; nutritional needs; low income; participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program; having children aged < 18 in the household; and limited access to health care. Among the non-U.S.-born respondents, IPP-DV victims were significantly younger when they entered the United States than their nonvictim counterparts. A multiple logistic regression model identified the following factors as main correlates with IPP-DV: feelings of being overwhelmed in the past 30 days (OR = 3.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.5-4.6); aged 18 to 44 (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.9-4.1); current smoking status (OR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.5-2.9); participation in WIC in the previous 2 years (OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.2-2.6); and being out of work (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.1-1.9). CONCLUSIONS: The above findings suggest that a variety of venues (e.g., schools, mental and physical health care providers, WIC, immigration programs, and social services) will be needed in order to identify/gain access to IPP-DV victims, provide referral resources, and implement any future prevention efforts.     

Chlamydia sentinel surveillance in Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services finds higher testing and positivity rates among younger people

Objective: To measure chlamydia testing and positivity rates among 16–39 year olds attending Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (ACCHSs). Methods: Retrospective non‐identifiable computerised records containing consultation and chlamydia testing data were collected for patients (16–39 years) attending eight ACCHSs during 2008–09 in urban, regional and remote settings for the Australian Collaboration for Chlamydia Enhanced Sentinel Surveillance (ACCESS) system. Annual chlamydia testing and positivity rates were estimated. Results: Over two years, 13,809 patients aged 16–39 years (57.8% female, 82.3% Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) attended. The annual overall chlamydia testing rate was 13.0% (2008) and 16.0% (2009). Testing rates were higher among females (p<0.001) and among patients aged 16–29 than 30–39 years (males: p=0.01; females: p<0.001). Chlamydia positivity was 8.5% overall; similar in females (8.7%) and males (7.8%) (p=0.46); highest among 16–19 years (females: 17.4%; males: 13.0%), declining to 1.5% among females 35–39 years (p<0.001) and 4.8% among males 30–34 years (p<0.001). Conclusions: Chlamydia testing at these ACCHSs approached recommended levels among some patient groups, however, it should increase. High positivity among younger people highlights they should be targeted. Implications: Young people should be targeted for sexual health interventions. ACCHSs are well placed to provide enhanced sexual health services if appropriately resourced.     

Assessing the association of walking with health services use and costs among socioeconomically disadvantaged older adults

BACKGROUND: The costs of physical inactivity are beginning to be recognized. Research to pinpoint these costs will provide needed information for researchers and policy-makers to develop cost-effective physical activity promotion programs. We present the association of walking with health services use and costs within a sample of 695 older, urban primary care patients. METHODS: A survey provided most data, but utilization and cost data were obtained from a medical records system. Multivariate models were developed to assess the association of walking with health services use and costs, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, chronic disease, health status, and previous utilization. RESULTS: Thirty-eight percent of respondents reported walking 0 minutes per week, 49% walked 1 to 119 minutes, and 13% walked 120 minutes or more. In the multivariate analyses, a report of walking 120 or more minutes was associated with a lower risk of emergency room visit and hospital stay in the subsequent year. No association was found between walking and primary care visits and total cost. CONCLUSION: These analyses suggest an association of walking 120 minutes or more with decreased emergency room visits (OR = 0.5, P = 0.046) and hospital stays (OR = 0.6, P = 0.034). This suggests that physical activity promotion among socioeconomically disadvantaged older adults has the potential to provide cost savings. This will not be known, however, until physical activity can be promoted and maintained among these adults.     

Chronic disease profiles in remote Aboriginal settings and implications for health services planning

Objective: To report the short-term experiences and outcomes of a program to support chronic disease management in three remote communities in Top End Northern Territory and in two Aboriginal Medical Services (AMSs) in Western Australia, and to discuss the implications of findings for health service delivery and policy.
Methods: Programs were health-worker centred. They espoused regular screening of all adults for chronic disease, initiation and modification of treatment where indicated and rigorous documentation. Process measures were documented and rates of hypertension, renal disease and diabetes among adults were calculated.
Results: Rates of hypertension, proteinuria and diabetes rose throughout adult life and multiple diagnoses were common. Most people with these conditions were young or middle age adults. Rates were uniformly excessive relative to AusDiab data, but varied greatly among settings. Adherence to protocols improved, many new diagnoses were made, treatments were started or modified and blood pressures in treated hypertensive people fell. In the NT, productivity was seriously limited by lack of health workers and their absenteeism. In the WA AMSs, executive and staff support carried the programs forward to a sustainable future, despite various challenges.
Conclusions: Integrated chronic disease testing must be repeated throughout adult life for timely diagnosis. Health workers can perform all tasks well, with appropriate supports. Blood pressure outcomes alone predict lower cardiovascular and renal mortality. The findings support incorporation of chronic disease into lifetime health care plans.     

One size fits all? The discursive framing of cultural difference in health professional accounts of providing cancer care to Aboriginal people

Objectives. Cancer is the second biggest killer of Aboriginal Australians. For some cancers, the mortality rate is more than three times higher in Aboriginal people than for non-Aboriginal people. The Aboriginal Patterns of Cancer Care Study explored barriers to and facilitators of cancer diagnosis and treatment among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in New South Wales.

Design. Our team – which includes both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal researchers – conducted in-depth interviews between 2009 and 2010 with Aboriginal people with cancer, their carers and health professionals who care for them. In this paper, we identify recurrent patterns of ‘discursive framing’ in the 16 interviews with health care professionals. We are particularly interested in how these frames assisted participants in constructing a professional position on what ‘cultural difference’ means for the design and delivery of cancer care services to Aboriginal people.

Results. Despite geographical, organisational, disciplinary and cultural diversity, these interview participants consistently drew upon six discursive frames, which we have interpreted as either eliding a discussion of difference (‘everyone is the same’ and ‘everyone is different’) or facilitating that discussion (‘different priorities,’ ‘different practices’ and ‘making difference safe’). An additional strategy appeared to actively resist either of these positions but then tended to ultimately prioritise the eliding frames.

Conclusions. While none of our participants were dismissive of the idea that cultural identity might matter to Aboriginal people, their reliance upon familiar narratives about what that means for cancer care services has the potential to both symbolically and practically exclude the voices of a group of people who may already feel disenfranchised from the mainstream health care system. Critically unpacking the ‘taken for granted’ assumptions behind how health care professionals make sense of cultural difference can enrich our understanding of and response to the care needs of indigenous people affected by cancer.     

Relationship Among Sociodemographic Factors,Clinical Conditions,and Health-related Quality of Life: Examining the EQ-5D in the U.S. General Population

Introduction: Health-related quality of life (HRQL) measures are used increasingly in evaluations of clinical and population-based outcomes and in economic analyses. We investigate the influence of demographic, socioeconomic, and chronic disease factors on the HRQL of a representative U.S. sample. Methods: We examined data from 13,646 adults in the 2000 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, a nationally representative sample of the U.S. general population, who completed a self-administered questionnaire containing the EQ-5D, a preference-based measure. We assessed the relationships between EQ-5D scores and sociodemographic variables, including age, sex, race/ethnicity, income and education, and six common chronic conditions. Results: In fully adjusted models, EQ-5D scores decreased with increasing category of age and were lower for persons with a lower income and educational attainment as well as each of the six conditions. Although the EQ-5D scores were lower for females and Whites compared with Blacks such differences were not of a magnitude considered to be clinically important. Conclusions: In the U.S., sociodemographic factors and clinical conditions are strongly associated with scores on the EQ-5D. Population health studies and risk-adjustment models should account and adjust for these factors when assessing the performance of health programs and clinical care.     

In Vitro Toxicity of Tobacco Smoke Solutions to Rabbit Alveolar Macrophages

The biological activity of various cigarette smokes has been assessed by treating cell cultures of rabbit alveolar macrophages with salt solutions of “whole smoke,” smoke ‘Vapor phase,’ and smoke “particulate phase.” The results of these tests revealed degrees of toxicity that varied in accordance with the smoke treatment used. Further, these differences in toxicity were statistically significant at the 95% confidence limit. Observations of changes in cell morphology on exposure to the smoke solutions indicated smoke toxicity to be caused, in part, by interference with cell membrane activity.     

Caring for the health of the public: cross sectional study of the activities of UK public health departments

The relative time spent in different areas of work in public health departments in the UK was assessed by means of a postal questionnaire. Departments spend one third of their time on population health work, this being similar to the amount of time spent on planning health services. Having a planning department in the health authority did not affect the amount of time spent in any area of work. Having a greater number of consultants in the department was associated with a tendency to spend more time on population health and being involved in training was associated with spending less time on planning. Public health departments in the UK are the only part of the health service with responsibility for the broader aspects of public health. Whilst the tensions between medical care and the wider influences upon population health may represent a false dichotomy, public health professionals must maintain a central focus of their work on the wider influences upon population health if balance is to be maintained within the National Health Service.     

社区健康教育对大肠癌高危人群应用效果研究

目的探讨社区健康教育对大肠癌高危人群防治大肠癌知识和生活行为方式的影响。方法 124例大肠癌高危人群随机分为实验组64例与对照组60例。对照组仅在住院时行防治大肠癌知识宣教;实验组增加社区健康教育,定期评价其防治大肠癌知识水平,及时纠正不健康的生活方式并予指导。结果实验组防治大肠癌相关知识的知晓率明显高于对照组（P〈0.05）,生活行为方式得分明显高于对照组（P〈0.001）。结论实行社区健康教育,能有效提高大肠癌高危人群防治大肠癌的知识水平,促进他们建立良好的生活行为方式。     

Contextual factors associated with uptake of breast and cervical cancer screening: A systematic review of the literature

ABSTRACT

Existing research on barriers to breast and cervical cancer screening uptake has focused primarily on socio-demographic characteristics of individuals. However, contextual factors, such as service organization, as well as healthcare providers’ training and practices, are more feasibly altered to increase health service use. The objective of the authors in this study was to perform a critical systematic review of the literature to identify contextual factors at the provider- and system-level that were associated with breast and cervical cancer screening uptake. Studies published from 2000 to 2013 were identified through PubMed and PsycInfo. Methodologic quality was assessed, and studies were examined for themes related to provider- and system-level factors associated with screening uptake. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings revealed a positive association between patients’ receipt of provider recommendation and uptake of breast and cervical cancer screening. Uptake was also higher among patients of female providers. Facilities with flexible appointment times and reminders had higher mammography and Pap test uptake. Similarly, greater organizational commitment to quality and performance had higher breast and cervical cancer screening rates. Knowledge provided in this review could be used in future research to inform the development of public health policy and clinical programs to improve screening uptake.     

Being ‘fat’ in today’s world: a qualitative study of the lived experiences of people with obesity in Australia

Objective To develop an in‐depth picture of both lived experience of obesity and the impact of socio‐cultural factors on people living with obesity. Design Qualitative methodology, utilizing in‐depth semi‐structured interviews with a community sample of obese adults (body mass index ≥30). Community sampling methods were supplemented with purposive sampling techniques to ensure a diverse range of individuals were included. Results Seventy‐six individuals (aged 16–72) were interviewed. Most had struggled with their weight for most of their lives (n = 45). Almost all had experienced stigma and discrimination in childhood (n = 36), as adolescents (n = 41) or as adults (n = 72). About half stated that they had been humiliated by health professionals because of their weight. Participants felt an individual responsibility to lose weight, and many tried extreme forms of dieting to do so. Participants described an increasing culture of ‘blame’ against people living with obesity perpetuated by media and public health messages. Eighty percent said that they hated or disliked the word obesity and would rather be called fat or overweight. Discussion and Conclusion There are four key conclusions: (i) the experiences of obesity are diverse, but there are common themes, (ii) people living with obesity have heard the messages but find it difficult to act upon them, (iii) interventions should be tailored to address both individual and community needs and (iv) we need to rethink how to approach obesity interventions to ensure that avoid recapitulating damaging social stereotypes and exacerbating social inequalities.