High anterior cervical approach to the upper cervical spine

BACKGROUND: Surgical exposure of the upper cervical spine is challenging, and optima approaches are subjects of debate. The high anterior cervical approach to the upper cervical spine is a favorable method that provides direct and wide exposure for fusion and anterior decompression of the upper cervical spine. The authors present their experiences with 15 patients in whom fusion and instrumentation on the upper cervical spine were performed via the prevascular extraoral retropharyngeal approach. METHODS: A series of 15 patients who were surgically treated using the high anterior cervical retropharyngeal approach was reviewed. These cases involved a C2 hangman's fracture with significant angulation and translation (11 patients), C2 EDH (1 patient), C2 chordoma (1 patient), C3-4 metastasis (1 patient), and C2-3-4 OPLL (1 patient). RESULTS: Twelve patients underwent C2-3 fusion followed by instrumentation. C2-5 fusion with instrumentation was performed in 2 patients. One patient experienced occipitocervical fusion after anterior removal of a C2 chordoma. A solid fusion was achieved in 13 patients. However, 1 patient needed additional posterior fusion because of fusion failure, and the other died due to ischemic heart disease. There was 1 patient who developed permanent dysphagia related to the hypoglossal nerve and 2 who had transient dysphagia. No complications occurred related to the marginal branch of the facial nerve or submandibular gland. CONCLUSIONS: The high anterior cervical approach is a useful surgical technique for an upper cervical lesion without severe morbidity, which allows direct anterior access to C2 and C3 while allowing extension to the lower cervical spine.     

The advantages of submandibular gland resection in anterior retropharyngeal approach to the upper cervical spine

Anterior surgery to the upper cervical spine, although rare, several successful approaches were described in the literature. To avoid the risks and limitations of transoral approach, the anterior retropharyngeal approach was developed. In this study, we describe our experience with anterior retropharyngeal approach to the upper cervical spine and discuss the significance of resecting the submandibular gland. From July 2001 to July 2004, we performed six anterior prevascular retropharyngeal approaches to the upper cervical spine. The series included five males and one female, ranging in age from 26 to 60 years (mean = 46). All six patients were intubated with nasotracheal cannula. The submandibular gland was mobilized and removed in all patients allowing adequate exposure of the arch of C1, C2, and C3 vertebral bodies. The anterior retropharyngeal approach permitted an adequate access to anteriorly situated lesions from C1 to C3 in all six patients, without the risks and limitations of transmucosal surgery. This approach allowed us to perform decompression of the spinal cord and reconstruction of the anterior column of the spine with bone graft and internal fixation. Careful removal of the submandibular gland provided better visualization of the arch of C1 and C2. No facial nerve palsy was seen in any of the six patients. Anterior retropharyngeal approach to the upper cervical spine combined with removal of the submandibular gland permits exposure of the anterior spine similar to that obtained by the transmucosal route, and provides a safe simultaneous arthrodesis and instrumentation during the primary surgical procedure without the potential contamination of the oropharyngeal cavity. Removal of the submandibular gland allows better exposure with less retraction and thus avoids severe injury to the mandibular branch of the facial nerve.     

Two-staged operation on C2 neoplastic lesions: anterior excision and posterior stabilization

This retrospective study included eight consecutive cases with C2 vertebral body neoplastic lesions. The anterior retropharyngeal approach was used to remove the lesions and decompress the spinal cord. Spinal stabilization with occipitocervical plating in a second-stage operation makes the treatment more tolerable for patients. The object of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a two-stage operation strategy for these lesions. Eight patients were operated on via anterior retropharyngeal approach and then stabilized with occipitocervical plates posteriorly in a second sitting. All neck pain and all dysphagia problems resolved. Partial neurologic improvement was achieved in three out of four patients. No postoperative infection was seen. The retropharyngeal approach to the upper cervical spine and anterior foramen magnum lesions is an effective alternative to transoral surgery because of low complication rates. Neoplastic lesions in the upper cervical spine can safely and effectively be operated with this technique. The general medical status of patients with malignancies does not permit too long, time-consuming operations. Stabilization of the spine in a separate operation increases patient tolerability without any morbidity.     

上位颈椎前路手术咽后入路“窗口”显露技术的临床应用观察

目的：探讨上颈椎前路减压经咽后入路＂窗口＂显露技术在上颈椎损伤手术中的应用。方法：2000年1月至2008年7月手术治疗上位颈椎损伤患者5例,男4例,女1例;年龄16～68岁,平均35岁。C2椎弓骨折（HangmanⅡ型）2例,C2,3椎间盘突出症2例,C2椎体结核1例。所有患者经高位前方咽后入路舌下神经、喉上神经、咽和颈动脉之间的＂窗口＂成功获得显露。Hangman骨折复位后行C2,3椎间盘切除椎间植骨融合内固定。C2,3椎间盘突出症患者行相应椎间盘切除,减压植骨融合内固定。C2椎体结核行病灶清除并植骨等。结果：5例患者均成功在舌下神经、喉上神经、咽和颈动脉之间的＂窗口＂显露出C1前弓-C3椎体。随访5～26个月,平均13.5个月。无伤口感染,无颈部重要血管神经损伤。患者的神经症状恢复良好,所有患者植骨都获得了融合。结论：前方咽后入路的＂窗口＂显露技巧可使上颈椎获得理想的显露,创伤小,切口并发症少,有相关经验后也比较安全。     

高位颈椎的前路手术治疗

目的观察高位颈椎前路手术的临床效果,方法本组15例．男10例,女5例．年龄12—67岁。C1,2椎体结核3例．Hangman 7例,先天性齿状突不连伴难复性环椎脱位3例,齿状突骨折2例。本组经高位前方咽后入路显露C2-3,椎体结核患者行病灶清除术．先天性齿状突不连者行前路松解复位．后路环枢融合;Hangman骨折。复位后行C2,3椎间植骨融合术．放自锁钛板内固定,齿状突骨折行前路中空螺钉内固定。结果15例患者均成功地显露C1前弓至C3椎体,并完成病灶清除、复位、减压融合内固定：无颈部重要血管神经损伤,无伤口感染．9例不全瘫有部分恢复。结论高位前方咽后入路可充分显露上颈椎．高位颈椎前路术式能有效复位、减压和稳定,并可最大程度重建颈椎生理功能。     

前方经咽后入路切口治疗上颈椎病变

目的探讨颈椎前方经咽后入路切口治疗上颈椎病变的临床疗效。方法 9例上颈椎病变患者,均采用前方经咽后入路切口实施颈椎前路手术,其中包括前后路手术1例,术前JOA评分平均（8.6±1.2）分,枢椎椎弓骨折2例,颈椎肿瘤3例,颈椎结核1例,颈椎间盘突出2例,颈椎畸形1例。结果 9例患者术中均清楚显露C1~C3椎体前方,完成减压复位、病灶清除、融合内固定等操作;有脊髓压迫者术后脊髓神经功能得到一定程度的改善。全部伤口于2周后获甲级愈合,无伤口感染病例。1例术后出现口轮匝肌瘫痪,1周左右自行缓解,1例出现术后呛咳,3周左右自行缓解,其余病例未出现颈部重要神经血管损伤与相应节段的颈髓损伤。9例患者均经平均12（10~16）个月随访,JOA评分术后平均（13.4±1.6）分,与术前比较有显著差异（P〈0.01）。结论经高位前方咽后入路可充分显露上颈椎前方,进行直接有效的手术操作,创伤小,并发症少,是理想的显露途径。     

Minimally invasive spine surgery: an animal model for endoscopic approach to the anterior cervical and upper thoracic spine

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive video-assisted techniques are currently used for thoracic and lumbar spine surgery with the aim of reducing the morbidity. Recently, an endoscopic approach has been used for endocrine neck surgery, with reduced pain and improved cosmetic results. PURPOSE: To develop an animal model for an endoscopic neck approach to the anterior cervical and upper thoracic spine. METHODS: Five pigs were used. A combination of one 5- and two 3-mm laparoscopic instruments was used to dissect the spine, and dedicated instrumentation was then used to perform discectomies. Carbon dioxide was insufflated at 10 mm Hg. Dissection was carried out upward and downward on the anterior aspect of the spine; discectomy was performed at various levels and evaluated at autopsy. RESULTS: All pigs tolerated the procedure well. Visibility of the cervical spine was excellent, and exposure from C1 to T3 was obtained. For discectomy, an additional 10-mm trocar was inserted, and discectomy of C3-C4 and C4-C5 was performed. Proper location and adequacy were confirmed at autopsy. CONCLUSION: The endoscopic neck approach allows exposure of the entire cervical spine and the upper thoracic spine in the porcine model. This approach has the potential to reduce the morbidity associated with the open cervical approach and provides a wider view and exposure than conventional open surgery. The availability of the porcine model allows the acquisition of the necessary technical skills before introducing this advanced procedure in humans.     

Minimally invasive anterior approach to upper cervical spine: surgical technique

OBJECTIVE: The transoral approach of Spetzler is the classic anterior access to the upper cervical spine that provides direct exposure for anterior decompression of the spinal cord. The risks of infection, the limits in extension, and the postoperative recovery difficulties of transmucosal access suggest the use of an alternative anterior extraoral approach in upper cervical surgery. However, this approach results in complications from nerve palsy because of excessive retraction of the hypoglossal and the superior laryngeal nerves. The goal of this work was to provide anatomic data for an anterior retropharyngeal upper cervical approach through a minimally invasive window below the hypoglossal and the superior laryngeal nerves. METHODS: In two adult cadaveric cervical spines, the anterior approach using the Metrx tubular retractor system through a window between the hypoglossal nerve and the superior laryngeal nerve, as well as below these two nerves, is compared in the exposure of C1 and C2 anteriorly with the aid of an operating microscope. RESULTS: A maximum diameter of the internervous window for the tubular retractor is reached beyond which the superior laryngeal nerve will be excessively stretched. Conversely, the tubular retractor can retract the superior laryngeal nerve superiorly without undue tension. Better proximal exposure is also made possible by angling an end-beveled tubular retractor on the mandible without undue compression on the hypoglossal and superior laryngeal nerves, the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve, and the submandibular gland. CONCLUSION: This minimally invasive approach can replace transoral surgery, allowing direct anterior access to C1 and C2 while allowing extension to the lower cervical spine.     

Surgical treatment of old C2 spinal fracture with C2/C3 subluxation using an anterior retropharyngeal approach--case report]

A patient with an inverterate transpedicular fracture of atlas and C2/C3 subluxation, with stenosis of spinal canal by bone fragment, was operated using anterior retropharyngeal approach. Stabilization with interbody cage was performed. During follow up examination both clinical and radiological result was good. This surgical approach seems to be a comfortable approach to the upper cervical spine.     

Lateral approach for resection of the C3 corpus: technical case report

OBJECTIVE AND IMPORTANCE: The C3 level is the transition zone between the upper and lower cervical spine. Because of its high position and anatomic relationships to significant structures, exposing C3 is challenging, and the surgical approach is controversial. CLINICAL PRESENTATION: A 16-year-old girl was admitted to our institution with a 3-year history of neck pain and progressive quadriparesis. Neuroradiological examination revealed severe spinal cord compression from kyphosis at the C3 level. TECHNIQUE: We used the lateral approach to resect the C3 corpus and realign the cervical spine. Resecting the transverse processes of C2-C4 and mobilizing the V2 segment of the vertebral artery adequately exposed C3 for resection. Bilateral occipitocervical fusion was performed in a second procedure, and no postoperative complications occurred. The patient's neurological status improved drastically after surgery, and she has had no craniocervical instability during the follow-up period. CONCLUSION: The lateral approach to the C3 corpus offers the greatest degree of cord decompression and easy access to the lesion in a wide and sterile operative field. We describe the surgical technique of this approach as an alternative to the anterior transmucosal or anterolateral retropharyngeal approach.     

The cervical spine in juvenile chronic arthritis.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: In patients with juvenile chronic arthritis (JCA) the cervical spine is often affected, leading to pain and functional limitations. PURPOSE: To describe the frequency of the radiographic abnormalities in the cervical spine of a large series of patients with JCA, examined after skeletal maturity. STUDY DESIGN: Consecutive patients with JCA, who had cervical spine radiographs available taken at adult age (>18 years) were included in the study from one outpatient clinic and one rheumatology ward in the Rheumatism Foundation Hospital, Heinola, Finland. PATIENT SAMPLE: The series consisted of 159 patients fulfilling the diagnostic criteria of the European League Against Rheumatism for JCA. OUTCOME MEASURES: Evaluation of cervical spine radiographs for inflammatory changes. METHODS: Inflammatory changes in the cervical spine radiographs were measured as well as the size of the fourth cervical vertebra. Patient records were studied. The statistical analysis was calculated by Student's t-test or Mann-Whitney U test. RESULTS: In 98 cases (62%) some inflammatory changes were detected in the cervical spine. Apophyseal joint ankylosis was noted in 65 patients (41%), anterior atlantoaxial subluxation in 27 (17 %) and atlantoaxial impaction in 39 (25 %). The fourth cervical vertebra was abnormally small in 41 patients (26%). CONCLUSIONS: Radiographically, the most frequent inflammatory change in the cervical spine of patients with JCA was apophyseal joint ankylosis at multiple levels. Atlantoaxial impaction and anterior atlantoaxial subluxation were typical of the upper cervical spine. Clinically, these changes tend to limit neck movements. A small C4 vertebral body was seen in patients with early disease onset and short body stature.     

Ⅰ期前后路联合手术治疗游离齿突继发的难复性寰枢椎脱位

目的探讨颈高位咽后入路前路松解、Ⅰ期后路融合治疗游离齿突继发的难复性寰枢椎脱位的临床效果。方法本组19例均为游离齿突继发的难复性寰枢椎脱位,X线片动态位不能自行复位,且术前颅骨牵引均未获得满意复位。采用颈高位咽后入路显露C1～C3,行寰枢椎前方松解复位,Ⅰ期后路寰枢融合内固定。结果 19例患者采用颈高位前方咽后入路均成功显露C1前弓～C3椎体,前路松解后复位良好,Ⅰ期行后路寰枢融合内固定,全组无一例出现脊髓损伤加重、咽喉部阻塞或窒息。1例颈后部伤口积液感染,经换药引流后痊愈;2例出现舌下神经牵拉症状,1例出现面神经刺激症状,均在1个月后恢复正常。脊髓功能正常者无神经功能损害,不全瘫患者神经功能均有部分恢复。随访植骨均获骨性融合,无内固定松脱。结论颈高位咽后入路行前方松解能够复位游离齿突继发的难复性寰枢椎脱位患者,Ⅰ期后路寰枢融合可获良好的植骨融合。     

矩形钛质颈椎椎间融合器在颈椎前路融合术中的应用以及近期效果观察

目的 探讨矩形钛质颈椎椎间融合器(SynCage-C)在颈椎前路椎问盘切除、椎体间植骨融合术中的应用价值。方法应用SynCage-C行颈椎病前路椎间盘切除后椎体间融合19例,平均随访9个月(6～14个月)。结果本组均为颈椎病患者,脊髓型16例、神经根型3例。平均年龄48岁(34～66岁),男性13例,女性6例。单节段融合16例,双节段3例。每节段平均手术时问40min,平均出血60ml。术后平均围领保护8．5周。3个月时颈椎侧位X线片显示融合良好。19例患者中仅有1例因戴围领超过3个月而感颈部僵直,1例有短暂髂骨取骨区疼痛。本组未见融合节段曲度不良、反曲、Cage下沉、融合不良。结论SynCage-C操作简单,可以有效恢复和维持椎间隙高度,植入后即刻稳定,椎间融合良好,取骨区创伤小。     

Unstable cervical spine in athetoid cerebral palsy

The manifestations and pathomechanism of cervical instability of the athetoid neck in cerebral palsy (CP) patients was clarified in this study by means of static and dynamic x-ray analysis. Instability was defined as follows: 1) listhesis indicating anterior or posterior slip of more than 3 mm and/or 2) sagittal rotation between two vertebrae beyond the normal range measured by Penning. Cervical instability fitting this definition mainly took place in the upper and middle cervical disc levels, such as C3-4, C4-5, and/or occasionally C5-6. These coincide with the disc levels adjacent to the apex of the lordotic curve and/or those around the transitional vertebrae between the two reversed curves that render the cervical spine S-shaped in athetoid CP. A large facet angle at the apex vertebra facilitated anterior and/or posterior listhesis of the vertebrae. Conversely, a sudden decrease in the facet angle around the transitional vertebra in S-shaped curves precipitated deflection of the spine and increased sagittal rotation at this level. In addition to these structural abnormalities, rapid and repetitious neck movements seemed to accelerate the progression of cervical instability in athetoid CP patients.     

经颌下入路切除枢椎肿瘤及前方内固定应用

目的 探讨经颌下胸锁乳突肌内侧缘入路切除枢椎肿瘤及前方内固定的应用.方法 2004年12月至2010年6月,采用经颌下胸锁乳突肌内侧缘入路联合后路行枢椎肿瘤切除前后内固定术治疗枢椎肿瘤17例,男11例,女6例;年龄23～77岁,平均49岁;C2 11例,C2.34例,C2-42例;8例累及椎体,9例累及椎体及附件.原发性肿瘤14例,其中骨巨细胞瘤4例,浆细胞瘤4例,脊索瘤2例,嗜酸性肉芽肿2例,血管外皮瘤、淋巴瘤各1例;转移性肿瘤3例.前路肿瘤切除后采用钛网植骨及钛板垂直放置螺钉固定、钛网植骨及钛板斜行放置螺钉固定、钛网修剪后植骨螺钉固定3种方式行上颈椎前路内固定,均一期联合后路肿瘤切除枕颈内固定.结果 术后患者局部疼痛缓解,神经症状减轻或消失.术后随访6个月至6年.1例采用钛网植骨及钛板垂直放置螺钉固定的患者术后1个月发生螺钉松动退出,经翻修后融合,余16例患者均获融合.1例患者于术后9个月死于脑梗死.2例脊索瘤患者分别于术后13和18个月局部复发,1例死于高位瘫痪、呼吸衰竭,1例带瘤生存.2例转移癌患者分别于术后12和18个月因全身多处转移、衰竭而死亡.结论 经颌下胸锁乳突肌内侧缘入路可获得枢椎肿瘤切除与重建的良好显露.应用颈椎内固定系统可实现枢椎肿瘤切除后上颈椎稳定的前方重建.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate procedure and therapeutic effect of resection and reconstruction for axis tumors through the sub mandible approach. Methods Between December 2004 to June 2010,17 patients with axis neoplasm underwent tumor resection and antero-posterior reconstruction through the combined the sub mandible-inner sternocleidomastoid muscle (SMIS) approach and posterior approach. Tumor lesions involved C2 in 11 cases, C2-3 in 4, C2-4 in 2. Eight cases involved vertebral body, and 9 involved both vertebral body and element. Fourteen primary lesions including 4 giant cell tumors, 4 plasmocytomas, 2 chordomas, 2 eosinophilic granulomas, 1 hemangiopericytomas and 1 lymphoma, and 3 metastatic lesions were involved in this study. Three types of reconstruction in upper cervical spine including titanium mesh plus vertically placed titanium plate, titanium mesh plus obliquely placed titanium plate and trimmed titanium mesh alone, were adopted after anterior tumor resection, and then posterior tumor resection and reconstruction were performed. Results All patients experienced pain relief and neurological improvement after surgery. Except for one incidence of screw pull-out which was corrected by a revision surgery, solid fusion was achieved in all patients. A follow-up period of 6 months to 6 years was available for this study. One patient died of cerebral infarction 9 months postoperative. Two patients with chordoma relapsed 13 months and18 months postoperative, respectively, of whom one died of high plegia and respiratory failure, and the other was alive with disease. Two patients with metastasis died of multiple remote metastases 12 months and 18 months postoperative, respectively. Conclusion Through the SMIS apporach, a satisfactory exposure can be obtained for axis tumor resection and reconstruction. Anterior reconstruction of upper cervical spine after tumor resection can be achieved with internal fixation system of cervical spine, which can improve intraopera-tive safety. The combined anterior reconstruction and posterior occipito-cervcial fixation can provide immediate stability, and benefit maintaining stability of upper cervical spine.     

The prevalence of cervical spondylolisthesis.

This study assessed the prevalence of cervical spondylolisthesis in patients undergoing radiographic studies for reasons unrelated to their cervical spine. Scout lateral cervical spine radiographs of 174 patients who had barium swallows were reviewed for the degree and level of cervical spondylolisthesis. Nine patients were found to have >2 mm of anterior subluxation of the cervical spine for a prevalence of 5.2%. Two patients had involvement at the C2-C3 level, one patient at C3-C4, four patients at C4-C5, one patient at C5-C6, and one patient at C7-T1. Subluxation ranged from 2 to 4 mm. Posterior subluxation (retrolisthesis) was not found in any patient. None of the nine patients with spondylolisthesis had complaints of neck pain or upper extremity symptoms, and none had a history of rheumatoid arthritis or cervical trauma.     

Atlantoaxial instability in a patient with neck pain and rheumatoid arthritis

Context: The purpose of this report is to describe the clinical decision-making process for a patient with rheumatoid arthritis with neck pain with underlying atlantoaxial instability.Findings: The patient was evaluated for worsening upper neck pain that began insidiously 1 year prior. The patient denied numbness or tingling in her upper or lower extremities, dizziness or lightheadedness, difficulty maintaining balance with walking, or muscle weakness. Cervical spine range of motion was limited in all planes due to pain and apprehension. The patient’s neurological examination was unremarkable. Prior flexion and extension radiographs of the cervical spine were interpreted as unremarkable with alignment preserved in flexion and extension. However, upon further inspection, the cervical spine flexion radiograph was concerning for inadequate cervical motion, which may have limited the diagnostic utility of these radiographs. Additionally, a Sharp-Purser test was performed, which was positive for excessive motion. Flexion and extension radiographs of the cervical spine were then repeated ensuring the patient adequately flexed and extended during the imaging. Severe anterior subluxation of C1 relative to C2 with cervical flexion was noted, as C1 moved as much as 8–9 mm anterior to C2 with cervical flexion. Given the degree of atlantoaxial instability, the patient subsequently underwent successful posterior fusion from the occiput to C2.Conclusion/Clinical Relevance: This case report demonstrates the importance of properly screening for upper cervical spine instability in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and neck pain and understanding the importance of obtaining adequate and appropriate diagnostic imaging.     

Extrapharyngeal (anterolateral) approach to the cervical spine

The extrapharyngeal approach to the anterior cervical spine is a safe, rapid surgical exposure. Other surgical exposures such as the posterior, lateral, and intraoral (transpharyngeal) have inherent limitations that this approach avoids. By going anterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle and great vessels, the surgical exposure of the anterior cervical spine is wide and the vital structures of the neck are visualized and not injured. We have used this extrapharyngeal approach to treat various disease states of the anterior cervical spine, such as trauma, osteomyelitis, neoplasia, and degenerative disease. Major complications have been neural injury, and pharyngeal fistula.     

寰枢椎肿瘤切除和重建技术的初步报告

目的 总结寰枢椎肿瘤手术显露和彻底切除的方法,评价异形钛网植骨融合内固定在寰枢椎肿瘤切除术后枕颈稳定性重建中的作用和价值.方法 2005年3月至2007年8月手术治疗6例寰枢椎肿瘤患者,男3例,女3例;年龄17～70岁,平均43.7岁;脊索瘤4例,骨巨细胞瘤1例,骨纤维异常增殖症1例.病变累及所有患者的椎体及侧块或后方结构.全部采用前方颌下颈动脉三角入路联合后方枕颈入路,按照"无瘤操作"的原则行病椎全脊椎切除,前路行异形钛网植骨融合内固定,后路行枕颈固定术,同时行Halo-vest架外固定,术后随访6～16个月.结果 C1.2切除1例,C2.3切除2例,C2切除3例.平均手术时间7.2h,平均术中出血量2400 ml.所有患者局部疼痛和神经症状减轻或消失,未出现神经、血管损伤,1例脊索瘤患者术后1年出现局部复发.至末次随访时所有患者头部位置良好,均达到枕颈区稳定,未出现内固定松动、断裂和移位.结论 按"无瘤操作"的原则行包膜外肿瘤切除可以获得较好的疗效;异形钛网植骨融合内固定术结合枕颈固定术,同时辅以Halo-vest架外固定,可以提高手术的安全性,并能在寰枢椎肿瘤切除术后有效地重建上颈椎的稳定性,实现即刻稳定,便于患者早期下床活动,提高患者生活质量,且手术操作简便易行,适合在寰枢椎肿瘤切除术中应用.