Systemic treatment in EGFR-ALK NSCLC patients：second line therapy and beyond

Lung cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and a leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide, with adenocarcinoma being the most common histological subtype. Deeper understanding of the pathobiology of non-small cell lung cancer（NSCLC） has led to the development of small molecules that target genetic mutations known to play critical roles in progression to metastatic disease and to influence response to targeted therapies. The principle goal of precision medicine is to define those patient populations most likely to respond to targeted therapies. However, the cancer genome landscape is composed of relatively few ＂mountains＂ [representing the most commonly mutated genes like KRAS, epidermal growth factor（EGFR）, and anaplastic lymphoma kinase（ALK）] and a vast number of ＂hills＂（representing low frequency but potentially actionable mutations）. Low-frequency lesions that affect a druggable gene product allow a relatively small population of cancer patients for targeted therapy to be selected.     

Pathophysiologie und Molekulardiagnostik beim nichtkleinzelligen Lungenkarzinom

Lung cancer is the most common tumor-related cause of death in western industrialized countries, despite continuous improvement in both diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. However, the development of targeted drugs against the critical oncogenic mechanisms in lung cancer is promising. Compounds targeting epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) and EML4-ALK (echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 gene and anaplastic lymphoma kinase) fusion protein are already in use. However, predominantly patients with adenocarcinomas of the lung who have never smoked gain benefit from these developments. Targeted therapies for the more frequent squamous cell carcinomas often found in smokers have been lacking. Recently, the amplification of the fibroblast growth factor receptor type 1 (FGFR1) gene was identified as a possible target in this patient group and is currently finding its way into clinical trials. The underlying pathology and molecular diagnostics necessary to successfully stratify patients for the novel, targeted therapies in lung cancer are discussed.     

Identification of RET fusions in a Chinese multicancer retrospective analysis by next‐generation sequencing

Fusion of RET with different partner genes has been detected in papillary thyroid, lung, colorectal, pancreatic, and breast cancer. Approval of selpercatinib for treatment of lung and thyroid cancer with RET gene mutations or fusions calls for studies to explore RET fusion partners and their eligibility for RET‐based targeted therapy. In this study, RET fusion patterns in a large group of Chinese cancer patients covering several cancer types were identified using next‑generation sequencing. A total of 44 fusion patterns were identified in the study cohort with KIF5B, CCDC6, and ERC1 being the most common RET fusion partners. Notably, 17 novel fusions were first reported in this study. Prevalence of functional RET fusions was 1.05% in lung cancer, 6.03% in thyroid cancer, 0.39% in colorectal cancer, and less than 0.1% in gastric cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. Analysis showed a preference for fusion partners in different tumor types, with KIF5B being the common type in lung cancer, CCDC6 in thyroid cancer, and NCOA4 in colorectal cancer. Co‐occurrence of EGFR mutations and RET fusions with rare partner genes (rather than KIF5B) in lung cancer patients was correlated with epidermal growth factor receptor‐tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance and could predict response to targeted therapies. Findings from this study provide a guide to clinicians in determining tumors with specific fusion patterns as candidates for RET targeted therapies.     

Challenges in Facing the Lung Cancer Epidemic and Treating Advanced Disease in Latin America

Lung cancer, the deadliest cancer worldwide, is of particular concern in Latin America. The rising incidence poses a myriad of challenges for the region, which struggles with limited resources to meet the health care needs of its low- and middle-income populations. In this environment, we are concerned that governments are relatively unaware of the pressing need to implement effective strategies for screening, diagnosis, and treatment of lung cancer. The region has also been slow in adopting molecularly-based therapies in the treatment of advanced disease: testing for epidermal growth factor receptor mutations and anaplastic lymphoma kinase rearrangements are not routine, and access to targeted agents such as monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors is problematic. In this paper, we review the current situation in the management of lung cancer in Latin America, hoping that this initiative will help physicians, patient associations, industry, governments, and other stakeholders better face this epidemic in the near future.     

Emerging targeted therapies in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in United States, accounting for more than one-fourth of the deaths annually. Although comparatively rare and relatively less studied, genetic abnormalities other than epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations, anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangements, and Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) mutations account for significant proportion of the driver mutations identified thus far. The targeted agents against B-rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (BRAF) V600E mutation, MNNG-HOS transforming gene (MET) pathway, ROS1 rearrangement, rearranged during transfection (RET) rearrangement, and HER2 pathways offer promising therapeutic options. Recruiting patients with these rarer mutations to well-designed, large multicenter trials to further validate the use of targeted agents remains a challenge. The clinical data and ongoing trials with these agents are reviewed in this article.     

RET fusion gene: Translation to personalized lung cancer therapy

Development of lung adenocarcinoma (LADC), the most frequent histological type of lung cancer, depends in many cases on the activation of “driver” oncogenes such as KRAS, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK). Inhibitors that target the EGFR and ALK tyrosine kinases show therapeutic effects against LADCs containing EGFR gene mutations and ALK gene fusions, respectively. Recently, we and others identified the RET fusion gene as a new targetable driver gene in LADC. The RET fusions occur in 1–2% of LADCs. Existing US Food and Drug Administration‐approved inhibitors of RET tyrosine kinase show promising therapeutic effects both in vitro and in vivo, as well as in a few patients. Clinical trials are underway to investigate the therapeutic effects of RET tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as vandetanib (ZD6474) and cabozantinib (XL184), in patients with RET fusion‐positive non‐small‐cell lung cancer.     

Double Trouble: A Case Series on Concomitant Genetic Aberrations in NSCLC

Several oncogenic drivers have been identified in non–small cell lung cancer. Targeted therapies for these aberrations have already been successfully developed and implemented in clinical practice. Owing to improved sensitivity in genetic testing, more and more tumors with multiple driver mutations are identified, resulting in dilemmas for treating physicians whether and which targeted therapy to use. In this case series, we provide an overview of patients with intrinsic double mutations in oncogenic drivers and their reported response to targeted therapies, with a focus on epidermal growth factor receptor, anaplastic lymphoma kinase, cMET, and Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene. We also include an unpublished case report on a patient with an epidermal growth factor receptor L858R and cMET exon 14 skipping.     

Genomische Analytik kleinzelliger Lungenkarzinome – neue Möglichkeiten in der Therapie?

Context

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is characterized by aggressive tumor biology with a high proliferation rate, invasive growth and early metastasis on the one hand and on the other hand by good initial response rates to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, development of resistance and early recurrence is common.

Material and Methods

Research and analysis of the literature.

Results

With the success of targeted therapies for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), in particular for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with adenocarcinoma of the lungs which show activating mutations in the EGFR or EML4-ALK translocation, the search for targetable genomic therapy in SCLC has intensified. Although no targeted therapies have yet become available in routine daily practice, several approaches are already being tested in clinical trials. The genomic aberrations found in SCLC and possible resulting targeted therapies and required molecular tests are discussed in this article.

Conclusions

The only currently relevant therapeutic option for SCLC is fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) gene duplications which can be detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Patients with confirmed FGFR1 duplications can be enrolled in the study “Phase 1 study on determination of the optimal dose of the oral pan-FGFR kinase inhibitor BGJ 398 for adults with advanced solid tumors”.     

Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor: molecular landscape,targeted therapeutics,and remaining challenges

Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor (IMT) is a rare mesenchymal tumor of intermediate malignant potential that predominantly affects children, adolescents and young adults. IMT has a predilection for the lung, abdomen, pelvis, and retroperitoneum, however, can affect any part of the body. IMT is typically localized, and multifocal or metastatic disease is uncommon. Complete surgical resection is the treatment of choice when feasible. There is no established standard of care for unresectable and advanced IMT. Approximately half of IMTs harbor anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene rearrangements, and fusions involving ROS1, PDGFRβ, RET and NTRK have also been described. Given the molecular landscape of IMT, management of these tumors has evolved to include tyrosine kinase inhibitors and novel targeted therapeutics. This review highlights the molecular characteristics, evolution of targeted therapies and the remaining challenges in the management of IMT.     

Renal effects of molecular targeted therapies in oncology: a review by the Cancer and the Kidney International Network (C-KIN)

A number of cancer therapy agents are cleared by the kidney and may affect renal function, including cytotoxic chemotherapy agents, molecular targeted therapies, analgesics, antibiotics, radiopharmaceuticals and radiation therapy, and bone-targeted therapies. Many of these agents can be nephrotoxic, including targeted cancer therapies. The incidence, severity, and pattern of renal toxicities may vary according to the respective target of the drug. Here, we review the renal effects associated with a selection of currenty approved targeted cancer therapies, directed to vascular endothelial growth factor or VEGF receptor(s) (VEGF/VEGFR), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), human epidermal growth factor receptor2 (HER2), BRAF, anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), programmed cell death protein-1 or its ligand (PD-1/PDL-1), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). The early diagnosis and prompt treatment of these renal alterations are essential in the daily practice where molecular targeted therapies have a definitive role in the armamentarium used in many cancers.     

A Case of Orbital Metastasis as Disease Progression of Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase-Positive Lung Cancer Treated with Crizotinib

Orbital metastasis of lung cancer is rare. It often causes visual disorder. To date, there are only a few case reports. Crizotinib is an anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) tyrosine kinase inhibitor that leads to responses in most patients with ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer. Visual disorder is one of the popular adverse events of crizotinib, but the symptom almost decreases over time. We report a case of orbital metastasis as the disease progression of ALK-positive lung cancer treated with crizotinib. It should be kept in mind that orbital metastasis can be the disease progression of lung adenocarcinoma with ALK translocation treated with crizotinib. When physicians encounter a patient receiving crizotinib with visual disorder, we must distinguish between adverse events and orbital metastasis.Key Words: Orbital metastasis, Crizotinib, Adverse event, Anaplastic lymphoma kinase, Lung cancer, Lung adenocarcinoma     

Somatic STK11 and Concomitant STK11/KRAS Mutational Frequency in Stage IV Lung Adenocarcinoma Adrenal Metastases

Somatic serine/threonine kinase 11 (STK11) also known as liver kinase B1 (LKB1) is a tumor suppressor gene and ranks as the third most frequently mutated gene in lung adenocarcinoma. However, current molecular testing guidelines recommend evaluating for epidermal growth factor receptor mutations and ALK fusions to guide therapy in all patients with advanced stage adenocarcinoma, regardless of gender, race, or smoking history. Identifying alternative “driver” mutations and using actionable targeted pharmacotherapy is a key approach to providing effective individualized medical care. The analytical sensitivity and parallel multigene approach of targeted next-generation sequencing is an attractive methodology for use for cytology specimens. The presented lung adenocarcinoma study revealed that STK11 mutations alone and concomitant KRAS/STK11 mutations were identified in 18.2% and 4.5% of solitary adrenal metastases, respectively. Molecular profiling of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistant tumors may help to identify patients who would most benefit from alternative single or dual pathway inhibition potentially leading to a revision in current molecular testing guidelines.     

Update on systemic therapy of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer

In the last decade, major progress in the treatment of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer has been made through the better understanding of the molecular biology of lung cancer, identification of new oncogene drivers and development of oncogene-directed drugs. Oncogene-directed therapies with EGFR or anaplastic lymphoma kinase tyrosine kinase inhibitors became standard practice in patients with activating EGFR mutations or anaplastic lymphoma kinase rearrangements, improving median survival rates to up to 35 months. Encouragingly, there are still numerous other targeted drugs and treatment strategies under development. In addition, nowadays chemotherapy can be tailored based on histology of the primary tumor and response to induction chemotherapy, raising median survival rates up to 13 months. These major developments, both in oncogene- and non-oncogene-directed therapies is presented in this review, together with a further designation of the most relevant future strategies, such as immunotherapy.     

Real-World Clinical Outcomes after Genomic Profiling of Circulating Tumor DNA in Patients with Previously Treated Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Comprehensive genomic profiling for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) can identify patients for molecularly targeted therapies that improve clinical outcomes. We analyzed data from 3084 patients (median age 65 years, 72.9% with adenocarcinoma) with advanced NSCLC registered in a real-world healthcare claims database (GuardantINFORM^TM, Guardant Health) who underwent next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) testing (Guardant360^®, Guardant Health) after first-line therapy (28.0% with agents targeted against genomic alterations). ctDNA was detected in 2771 samples (89.9%), of which 41.9% harbored actionable alterations, most commonly EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) mutations (29.7%). Actionable alterations were detected in 26.7% of patients (534/2001) previously treated with non-targeted agents. Emerging potentially targetable mutations were found in 40.1% (309/770) of patients previously treated with targeted therapies. Among patients with qualifying alterations detected by ctDNA testing, the time to treatment discontinuation (median 8.8 vs. 4.2 months; hazard ratio 1.97, p < 0.001) and overall survival (median 36.1 vs. 16.6 months; hazard ratio 2.08, p < 0.001) were longer for those who received matched second-line therapy versus unmatched second-line therapy. In real-world practice, results of a blood-based NGS assay prior to second-line treatment inform therapeutic decisions that can improve clinical outcomes for patients with advanced NSCLC.     

BIM在晚期非小细胞肺癌治疗中的作用

肺癌是全世界范围内发病率和死亡率最高的恶性肿瘤,其中非小细胞肺癌（non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC）是肺癌中最常见的类型。随着对肺癌发病机制、生物学行为的深入研究及基因检测水平的提高,以表皮生长因子受体（epidermal growth fac? tor receptor,EGFR）和间变淋巴瘤激酶（anaplastic lymphoma kinase,ALK）为靶点药物的发现,在晚期NSCLC个体化治疗的发展中具有里程碑式的意义。BIM（Bcl-2 interaction mediator of cell death）是Bcl-2家族促凋亡蛋白中的一员,参与细胞凋亡的重要介质。近年来,有研究证实BIM的表达水平及多态性会影响晚期NSCLC靶向治疗及化疗的疗效。本文就BIM及其在晚期NSCLC靶向治疗及化疗中的作用进行综述。      

Targeted Therapy for Brain Metastases in EGFR-Mutated and ALK-Rearranged Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Approximately half of all patients with non–small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) develop brain metastases (BM) during the course of their disease, leading to significant challenges in treatment. Molecular targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors have proven effective for patients with activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor gene and chromosomal rearrangements involving the anaplastic lymphoma kinase gene. Despite their efficacy in systemic disease control, their effectiveness in patients with BM is not well established. In this article, we review recent data on the use of epidermal growth factor receptor and anaplastic lymphoma kinase tyrosine kinase inhibitors for treatment of patients with NSCLC and BM. These data highlight the potential for meaningful disease control within the central nervous system and the inherent challenges in treating patients with NSCLC and BM.     

ALK阳性非小细胞肺癌靶向治疗耐药机制及治疗管理的研究进展

目前，肺癌仍是世界上最常见的恶性肿瘤，位居癌症死亡原因的第1位，随着靶向治疗的发展，死亡率已显著降低。间变性淋巴瘤激酶（anaplastic lymphoma kinase，ALK）作为对治疗有显著反应的非小细胞肺癌（non-small cell lung carcinoma，NSCLC）基因型，发展至今已有三代针对其靶位的间变性淋巴瘤激酶酪氨酸激酶抑制剂（anaplastic lymphoma kinase-tyrosine kinase inhibitors，ALK-TKIs），新一代的ALK-TKIs比上一代具有更为广泛的作用位点覆盖范围及更强的药物组织穿透能力。发展前路可观，但仍无法规避耐药问题，随着多种ALK抑制剂应用及联合治疗的选择增多，新的耐药后突变、复合突变以及其他多种耐药机制已逐渐被关注。与此同时，相关早期诊断及预后标志物也被发掘证实。NSCLC耐药机制及检测手段在不断更新，治疗以基于基因依赖性的个体化治疗为主，以期通过对多种耐药方式的介入，使得NSCLC逐渐转变为慢性病。本文归纳介绍了ALK抑制剂应用于NSCLC的现状及耐药机制，耐药后治疗策略及诊断和预后标志物的进展，旨在为ALK阳性NSCLC的诊治及耐药后管理策略提供参考依据。      

Oncogenic driver mutations in non-small cell lung cancer: Past,present and future

Lung cancer, of which non-small lung cancer is the most common subtype, represents the leading cause of cancer related-death worldwide. It is now recognized that a significant proportion of these patients present alterations in certain genes that drive oncogenesis. In recent years, more of these so-called oncogenic drivers have been identified, and a better understanding of their biology has allowed the development new targeted agents. This review aims to provide an update about the current landscape of driver mutation in non-small-cell lung cancer. Alterations in Kirsten rat sarcoma, epidermal growth factor receptor, MET, anaplastic lymphoma kinase, c-ROS oncogene 1, v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B, neurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase, human epidermal growth factor 2, neuregulin-1 and rearranged during transfection are discussed, as well as agents targeting these alterations. Current standards of treatment as well as promising future strategies are presented. Currently, more than fifteen targeted agents are food and Drug administration-approved for seven oncogenic drivers in non-small-cell lung cancer, highlighting the importance of actively searching for these mutations. Continuous and future efforts made in defining the biology of each of these alterations will help to elucidate their respective resistance mechanisms, and to define the best treatment strategy and therapeutic sequence.     

Development and Validation of a Scalable Next-Generation Sequencing System for Assessing Relevant Somatic Variants in Solid Tumors

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has enabled genome-wide personalized oncology efforts at centers and companies with the specialty expertise and infrastructure required to identify and prioritize actionable variants. Such approaches are not scalable, preventing widespread adoption. Likewise, most targeted NGS approaches fail to assess key relevant genomic alteration classes. To address these challenges, we predefined the catalog of relevant solid tumor somatic genome variants (gain-of-function or loss-of-function mutations, high-level copy number alterations, and gene fusions) through comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of >700,000 samples. To detect these variants, we developed the Oncomine Comprehensive Panel (OCP), an integrative NGS-based assay [compatible with < 20 ng of DNA/RNA from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues], coupled with an informatics pipeline to specifically identify relevant predefined variants and created a knowledge base of related potential treatments, current practice guidelines, and open clinical trials. We validated OCP using molecular standards and more than 300 FFPE tumor samples, achieving >95% accuracy for KRAS, epidermal growth factor receptor, and BRAF mutation detection as well as for ALK and TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusions. Associating positive variants with potential targeted treatments demonstrated that 6% to 42% of profiled samples (depending on cancer type) harbored alterations beyond routine molecular testing that were associated with approved or guideline-referenced therapies. As a translational research tool, OCP identified adaptive CTNNB1 amplifications/mutations in treated prostate cancers. Through predefining somatic variants in solid tumors and compiling associated potential treatment strategies, OCP represents a simplified, broadly applicable targeted NGS system with the potential to advance precision oncology efforts.Abbreviations: AOHC, AcroMetrix Oncology Hotspot Control; CNAs, copy number alterations; FFPE, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded; GoF, gain-of-function; indels, insertions/deletions; LoF, loss-of-function; LU, lung cohort; MCR, minimal common region; MO, molecular cohort; NCCN, National Comprehensive Cancer Network; NGS, next-generation sequencing; OCP, Oncomine Comprehensive Panel; PGM, Personal Genome Machine; PR, prostate cohort; QMRS, Quantitative Multiplex Reference Standard; SCC, small cell carcinoma; TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas     

Oncogenic pathways, molecularly targeted therapies, and highlighted clinical trials in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has recently been associated with interesting molecular characteristics that have important implications in carcinogenesis and response to targeted therapies. The unsatisfactory treatment outcomes in advanced NSCLC with respect to long-term survival rates may be improved through a better understanding of the molecular etiology of this disease. For instance, several molecular alterations have been defined as "driver mutations," such as mutations in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Kirsten-rous avian sarcoma (KRAS), and a chromosome 2p inversion producing an EML4-ALK fusion gene (echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 fused with the anaplastic lymphoma kinase). Other key signaling pathways such as RAS/RAF/MEK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) kinase, LKB1, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) receptor (IGF-1R) have also been identified as novel targets for lung cancer treatment. In this review we focus on the molecular discoveries that have led to the clinical applications and trials of novel targeted agents, including the clinical trials that selectively studied patients who were predicted to achieve the greatest benefit based on the expression of correlative biomarkers.