Alcohol consumption and hip fractures: the Framingham Study

Alcoholics often sustain hip and other fractures. However, a detailed examination of the association between alcohol consumption and hip fractures has not been undertaken. Specifically, the effects of moderate alcohol intake, of alcohol consumption in the elderly, and of changes in consumption have not been studied. Using a retrospective cohort design, the authors evaluated this association in the population-based Framingham Heart Study cohort, a group studied over 35 years and queried repeatedly about their alcohol consumption. In 117,224 person-years of observation, 217 hip fractures occurred. Heavy current alcohol consumption (defined as seven or more ounces (207 ml or more) per week) was associated with a modestly increased risk of hip fracture for women (relative risk (RR) = 1.54) and for men (RR = 1.26) after adjustment for age. In a logistic regression analysis controlling for age, sex, weight, and smoking, current alcohol consumption was associated with a significant (p = 0.01) increase in risk of fracture. The relative risks at different ages were not uniform. For those aged less than 65 years, moderate (2-6 ounces (59.14-177.4 ml) per week) and heavy (seven or more ounces (207 ml or more) per week) were associated with a substantial and significant increased risk, but there was only a marginal and nonsignificant increase in risk in those aged 65 years or more. Examination of the effect of changing alcohol consumption over time indicated that among present heavy alcohol users, past light alcohol consumption reduced the risk (p = 0.03) of fracture, whereas in those with present light consumption, past heavy intake had little effect on fracture risk (p = nonsignificant). In conclusion, alcohol consumption, especially if long-term and heavy, increases the risk of hip fracture.     

Changes in alcohol intake and mortality: a longitudinal population-based study

BACKGROUND: Using alcohol intake at one point in time, numerous studies have shown a J- or U-shaped relation with all-cause mortality. Mortality is lowest among the light to moderate drinkers, with the risk of dying from coronary heart disease higher among nondrinkers and the risk of dying from cancer higher among heavy drinkers. We studied whether changes in individual alcohol intake result in corresponding changes in mortality. METHODS: In a longitudinal study of 6644 men and 8010 women, age 25 to 98 years, who had attended at least 2 health surveys with a 5-year interval between them, we addressed the risk of death after combinations of changes in alcohol intake. RESULTS: Mortality after changes in alcohol intake was consistent with the mortality observed among those who reported stable drinking. Stable drinkers showed a U-shaped all-cause mortality, with relative risks of 1.29 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13-1.48) for nondrinkers (< 1 drink per week) and 1.32 (1.15-1.53) for heavy drinkers (> 13 drinks per week) compared with light drinkers (1 to 6 drinks per week). For coronary heart disease mortality, stable nondrinkers had a relative risk of 1.32 (0.97-1.79) compared with stable light drinkers and those who had reduced their drinking from light to none increased their risk (1.40; 1.00-1.95), and those who had increased from nondrinking to light drinking reduced their relative risk ratio (0.71; 0.44-1.14). Cancer mortality was increased in all groups of heavy drinkers. CONCLUSION: Persons with stable patterns of light and moderate alcohol intake had the lowest all-cause mortality. Individual changes in alcohol intake were followed by corresponding changes in mortality.     

Alcohol consumption, metabolic cardiovascular risk factors and hypertension in women

BACKGROUND: Low to moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced mortality, primarily due to a reduction in coronary heart disease (CHD). Conversely, heavy drinking increases mortality, mainly due to haemorrhagic stroke and non-cardiovascular diseases. It is important to identify the threshold of alcohol consumption above which the balance of risk and benefit becomes adverse. We examine the relationship between reported alcohol consumption, cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, a 10-year CHD risk score and hypertension in women. METHODS: In all, 14 077 female employees aged 30-64 years, underwent screening for CVD risk factors. Information was available on a range of personal and lifestyle factors, including height, weight, blood pressure, lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins and blood glucose. Age-adjusted means were computed for the risk factors in each of five groups of reported alcohol intake: <1 (non-drinkers), 1-7, 8-14, 15-21, > or = 22 units/week. The relationships between alcohol and a derived coronary risk score and hypertension were also examined. RESULTS: Increasing consumption was associated with an age-adjusted increase in high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and apolipoprotein A1 (both P < 0.001), a decline in body mass index, total cholesterol (TC), TC/HDL-C ratio, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and apolipoprotein B (all P < 0.001), and no trend in triglycerides (P = 0.06), lipoprotein (a) (P = 0.09) or fasting glucose (P = 0.14). Except for LDL-C (P = 0.06) the relationships remained statistically significant after adjustment for possible confounders. Compared to non-drinkers, there was a decrease in 10-year CHD risk with increasing consumption, with the greatest reduction in risk in women consuming 1-7 units/week, odds ratio (OR) = 0.79, (95% CI: 0.72-0.87), and an increase in the prevalence of hypertension among those consuming 15-21 units/week, OR = 1.68, (95% CI: 1.14-2.46). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides biological support for an inverse association between alcohol intake and CHD in women, associated with favourable changes in lipid and lipoprotein risk factors. Women consuming 1-14 units/week had a reduction in CHD risk, but there was an increased prevalence of hypertension among those consuming > or = 15 units/week. These data suggest that, in terms of the reduced risk of CVD, women should be advised to restrict their alcohol consumption to < or = 14 units/week.     

Alcohol drinking, consumption patterns and breast cancer among Danish nurses: a cohort study

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of alcohol intake and drinking pattern on the risk of breast cancer. METHODS: A total of 17 647 nurses were followed from 1993 until the end of 2001. At baseline participants completed a questionnaire on alcohol intake and other lifestyle-related factors. Data were analysed using Cox's proportional hazard model. RESULTS: During follow-up 457 women were diagnosed with breast cancer. The relative risk of breast cancer was 2.30 [Confidence interval (CI): 1.56-3.39] for alcohol intake of 22-27 drinks per week, compared to 1-3 drinks per week. Among alcohol consumers, weekly alcohol intake increased the risk of breast cancer with 2% for each additional drink consumed. Weekend consumption increased the risk with 4% for each additional drink consumed friday through sunday. Binge drinking of 4-5 drinks the latest weekday increased risk with 55%, compared with consumption of one drink. A possible threshold in risk estimates was found for consumption above 27 drinks per week. CONCLUSIONS: For alcohol consumption above the intake most frequently reported, the risk of breast cancer is increased. The risk is minor for moderate levels but increases for each additional drink consumed during the week. Weekend consumption and binge drinking imply an additional increase in breast cancer risk.     

Alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: atherosclerosis risk in communities study

Evidence regarding the association between alcohol consumption and type 2 diabetes risk remains inconsistent, particularly with regard to male-female differences. The authors conducted a prospective study of type 2 diabetes risk associated with alcohol consumption in a cohort of 12,261 middle-aged participants of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study (1990-1998), who were followed between 3 and 6 years. Alcohol consumption at baseline was characterized into lifetime abstainers, former drinkers, and current drinkers of various levels. Incident diabetes was determined by blood glucose measurements and self-report. After adjustment for potential confounders, an increased risk of diabetes was found in men who drank >21 drinks/week when compared with men who drank < or =1 drink/week (odds ratio = 1.50, 95% confidence interval: 1.02, 2.20) while no significant association was found in women. This increased diabetes risk among men who drank >21 drinks/week was predominantly related to spirits rather than to beer or wine consumption. The relative odds of incident diabetes in a comparison of men who drank >14 drinks of spirits per week with men who were current drinkers but reported no regular use of spirits, beer, or wine were 1.82 (95% confidence interval: 1.14, 2.92). Results of this study support the hypothesis that high alcohol intake increases diabetes risk among middle-aged men. However, more moderate levels of alcohol consumption do not increase risk of type 2 diabetes in either middle-aged men or women.     

Caffeine and the risk of hip fracture: the Framingham Study

Caffeine increases urinary calcium output and has been implicated as a risk factor for osteoporosis. The authors examined the effect of caffeine on hip fracture risk in 3,170 individuals attending the 12th (1971-1973) Framingham Study examination. Coffee and tea consumption, age, Framingham examination number, weight, smoking, alcohol consumption, and estrogen use were used to evaluate hip fracture risk according to caffeine intake. Hip fractures occurred in 135 subjects during 12 years of follow-up. Fracture risk over each 2-year period increased with increasing caffeine intake (one cup of coffee = one unit of caffeine, one cup of tea = 1/2 unit of caffeine). For intake of 1.5-2.0 units per day, the adjusted relative risk (RR) of fracture was not significantly elevated compared with intake of one or less units per day. Consumption of greater than or equal to 2.5 units per day significantly increased the risk of fracture. Overall, intake of greater than two cups of coffee per day (four cups of tea) increased the risk of fracture. In summary, hip fracture risk was modestly increased with heavy caffeine use, but not for intake equivalent to one cup of coffee per day. Since caffeine use may be associated with other behaviors that are, themselves, risk factors for fracture, the association may be indirect. Further studies should be performed to confirm these findings.     

男性饮酒与缺血性脑卒中发病关系的研究

目的 探讨中国男性人群中饮酒与缺血性脑卒中发病的关系。方法 1982～1985年在全国10组人群中分别整群随机抽取2000～4000人进行饮酒及心血管病危险因素调查,并对其中无冠心病、脑卒中及恶性肿瘤者脑卒中事件的发生情况进行随访观察,随访至1999～2000年,平均随访15.2年。结果 在12352名男性中共发生缺血性脑卒中283例。在控制了多种危险因素后,每日饮酒量(酒精含量)在0～、15～、30～和60g各组与不饮酒者相比,发生缺血性脑卒中的相对危险(OR值95％CI)分别为0.86(0.57～1.27)、1.20(0.87～1.65)、1.26(0.86～1.84)、1.96(1.30～2.93)。结论 在中国男性人群中,小量饮酒并不增加缺血性脑卒中发生的危险性,大量饮酒会使缺血性脑卒中发生的危险明显增加。     

Alcohol consumption in the new millennium – weighing up the risks and benefits for our health

• 1 Introduction
• 2 An introduction to alcohol and alcoholic beverages
  • 2.1 How is alcohol produced
  • 2.2 The production of alcoholic beverages
  • 2.3 Calculation of alcohol content in beverages
  • 2.4 Other measures of alcohol
• 3 Guidelines for sensible drinking
  • 3.1 UK guidelines
  • 3.2 Guidelines for sensible drinking around the world
• 4 Alcohol consumption
  • 4.1 Current alcohol intakes in the UK
  • 4.2 Recent trends in alcohol intake in the UK
  • 4.3 Trends around the world
• 5 Absorption and metabolism of alcohol
  • 5.1 Absorption of alcohol
  • 5.2 Alcohol metabolism
• 6 Alcohol and nutrition
  • 6.1 Nutrient composition of alcoholic beverages
  • 6.2 The effect of alcohol on energy intake
  • 6.3 Nutritional implications of chronic excessive alcohol consumption
  • 6.4 Other components of alcoholic beverages
• 7 The burden of disease and mortality related to alcohol
• 8 Alcohol and disease risk
  • 8.1 Methodological problems of studies assessing associations between alcohol consumption and disease risk
  • 8.2 Alcohol and bodyweight
  • 8.3 Alcohol and coronary heart disease
  • 8.4 Alcohol and blood pressure
  • 8.5 Alcohol and stroke
  • 8.6 Alcohol and type 2 diabetes
  • 8.7 Alcohol and cancer
• 9 Alcohol and other conditions
  • 9.1 Adverse reactions to alcohol for some susceptible individuals
  • 9.2 Alcohol and peptic ulcers
  • 9.3 Alcohol during pregnancy
  • 9.4 Alcohol, bone mineral density and fracture risk
  • 9.5 Alcohol and renal dysfunction
• 10 Alcohol and social issues
  • 10.1 Short‐term psychological and psychomotor effects of alcohol intake
  • 10.2 Crime and public disorder as a result of drinking alcohol
  • 10.3 Alcohol‐related harms and other public health issues
  • 10.4 The economics of alcohol consumption
  • 10.5 Population‐based initiatives underway to reduce the incidence of binge drinking
• 11 Conclusions

Summary Alcohol is produced via the anaerobic fermentation of sugars by yeast and involves glucose molecules (C₆H₁₂O₆) being broken down to yield ethanol (C₂H₅OH), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and energy. The amount of alcohol contained in different alcoholic beverages varies considerably and is referred to as the ‘strength’ of the drink, which is expressed as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV). A standard unit of alcohol in the UK equates to 8 g or 10 ml of pure alcohol. Guidelines for sensible drinking set by the UK government are 3–4 units (24–32 g) a day or less for men, and 2–3 units (16–24 g) a day or less for women. Specific recommendations have been set for those planning pregnancy and pregnant women, who should drink no more than 1–2 units of alcohol once or twice a week and should avoid heavy drinking sessions. Guidelines for sensible drinking are similar in other countries. When taking into account the standard drink unit used to define guidelines, the most commonly recommended limit is 24 g/day for men and 20 g/day for women. Older people are more likely to drink in line with the sensible drinking guidelines, as they tend to consume alcohol over a period of time, as opposed to consuming large quantities on one or two days of the week, a practice that is more popular among younger people. Consuming double the sensible drinking guidelines in one day is classified as binge drinking (an alternative definition is drinking until intoxicated). It has become recognised that binge drinking is a common phenomenon in the UK, particularly among younger people. Other factors, such as income, ethnicity and region of residence, are also recognised to be predictive of the quantity of alcohol consumed; for example, higher‐income households are more likely to consume large quantities of alcohol and consume alcohol more frequently. The quantity of alcohol consumed is an important factor in determining how it affects health and well‐being. In terms of nutritional health, chronic excessive alcohol intake is well recognised to affect an individual’s nutrient status, because it reduces food intake and/or may interfere with the digestion, absorption, metabolism and utilisation of some nutrients. However, when consumed in moderation, alcohol is unlikely to interfere with the metabolism of nutrients or be associated with impaired vitamin function or depletion to an extent that may harm health, provided that dietary intakes are adequate. Alcoholic beverages contain alcohol, carbohydrate and only small amounts of some vitamins, trace elements and minerals. They are therefore unlikely to contribute significantly to micronutrient intake. Any association that exists between moderate alcohol consumption and the absorption and metabolism of nutrients from the diet is dependant on a number of factors, including: the nutrient in question; habitual intake of the nutrient and the nutritional status of the individual; and the quantity of alcohol consumed over a period of time. Overall, little information exists about the implications of binge drinking on nutrient status; but it may alter food intake, and excessive alcohol consumption can cause disturbances to the digestive system. While infrequent binge drinking is unlikely to have any long‐term nutritional implications (although it may affect nutrient status in the short‐term), regular binge drinking may have a more negative impact. Although alcoholic beverages tend to have few nutrients, they can be a significant source of energy, as alcohol provides 7 kcal per gram. Studies indicate that alcoholic beverages are usually additive to an individual’s normal energy intake and individuals are unlikely to compensate for energy from them during the day. The aperitif effect of alcohol may also encourage an increase in energy intake. It is therefore not surprising that alcohol intake has been associated with weight gain and an increase in body mass index (BMI) (with the exception of chronic excessive drinkers). However, there are a number of methodological problems that need to be considered when comparing the findings of studies investigating the association between alcohol intake and disease risk, including: potential misreporting of total intake; the use of an appropriate control group; and the need for comparable measurement units. Consumption of alcoholic beverages has also been associated with increasing the risk of ill‐health associated with pre‐existing conditions. For example, it may contribute to ulcer development or aggravate symptoms of existing ulcers. There is evidence that moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy may affect the development of the fetus’s central nervous system, and may result in low birthweight. However, there is currently no consensus as to whether alcohol should be completely avoided during pregnancy. However, it is well recognised that excess alcohol consumption during pregnancy can put the fetus at risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. Quantity of alcohol consumed is particularly important when considering the association between alcohol and chronic diseases; for example, there is now strong evidence that light to moderate (1–3 drinks per day) consumption decreases the risk of a coronary heart disease (CHD) episode compared with abstainers (with particular benefits in men aged over 55 years and post‐menopausal women). However, heavy drinking is associated with an increased risk of CHD. Further information is required to determine the association between drinking patterns and heart health. However, there is a consensus of opinion that it is the alcohol per se that influences heart health, rather than a particular type of alcoholic beverage; and other factors that affect an individual’s choice of drink may be important in distorting the findings from studies that show otherwise. As with risk of CHD, light to moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a decreased risk (of 30–40%) of type 2 diabetes, when compared with teetotallers. Heavy drinking may be associated with an increased risk, resulting in a ‘J’ or ‘U’ shaped relationship between alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. A ‘J’ shaped relationship has also been reported between alcohol consumption and blood pressure. It is widely accepted that heavy alcohol intake is a risk factor for high blood pressure, and evidence indicates that moderate intakes may exert a short‐term lowering effect, while abstainers/teetotallers are reported to have a higher blood pressure. The type of stroke is important when considering the association between stroke and alcohol, as any alcohol consumption is associated with an increased risk of haemorrhagic stroke, but low intakes (i.e. one drink per day) may have a protective effect on ischaemic stroke. Heavy drinking is associated with an increased risk of both types of stroke. Alcohol intake has also been associated with an increased risk of cancers at a number of sites. However, a consensus for a likely causal association has only been identified between alcohol and cancers of the upper‐aero digestive tract and liver. The mechanisms to explain the positive associations between alcohol and breast cancer, and alcohol and colorectal cancer, have yet to be identified. It is unclear whether some types of alcoholic beverage are more strongly associated with increased risk of cancer than others. Mechanisms identified to date suggest that it is the alcohol per se that exerts damage and, therefore, quantity of alcohol consumed is the most important variable. Studies looking at the relationship between alcohol and mortality suggest that 10–80 g (approximately 1–8 drinks) of alcohol each week is optimal to reap the health benefits, but increased risk is noted at higher intakes (thus indicating a ‘U’ shaped relationship between alcohol intake and mortality). Gender and age are important factors when considering the association between alcohol and mortality. For example, for younger people, the benefits of alcohol may be outweighed by the increased risk of other diseases (e.g. alcohol‐related cancers, liver cirrhosis) and increased risk of violence and accidents. Aggressive behaviour, increased risk taking and decreased responsiveness to social expectations, which may lead to personal ‘harm’, including accidents and violence, are usually the result of alcohol intoxication (i.e. through binge drinking). Excess alcohol consumption may also result in a ‘hangover’, which disrupts normal life through symptoms of fatigue and increased anxiety, and has economic consequences in the workplace through poor performance or absenteeism. The extent to which a hangover can affect an individual’s performance, including psychomotor, recognition and managerial skills, is still being debated. Binge drinking is also associated with an increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancies. Although the cost of binge drinking in terms of long‐term health has yet to be established, the significant economic cost is well recognised. A number of population‐based initiatives are underway to try and change the ‘drinking culture’, and thus reduce the incidence of binge drinking. Initiatives include: advertising campaigns; changes to alcohol advertising regulations; and changes to pub licensing regulations.     

Alcohol intake and the risk of lung cancer: influence of type of alcoholic beverage

Alcohol consumption has been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer, but the antioxidants in wine may, in theory, provide protection. This association was studied in 28,160 men and women subjects from three prospective studies conducted in 1964-1992 in Copenhagen, Denmark. After adjustment for age, smoking, and education, a low to moderate alcohol intake (1-20 drinks per week) was not associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. Men who consumed 21-41 and more than 41 drinks per week had relative risks of 1.23 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.88-1.74) and 1.57 (95% CI 1.06-2.33), respectively. The risk of lung cancer differed according to the type of alcohol consumed: After abstainers were excluded, drinkers of 1-13 and more than 13 glasses of wine per week had relative risks of 0.78 (95% CI 0.63-0.97) and 0.44 (95% CI 0.22-0.86), respectively, as compared with nondrinkers of wine (p for trend = 0.002). Corresponding relative risks for beer intake were 1.09 (95% CI 0.83-1.43) and 1.36 (95% CI 1.02-1.82), respectively (p for trend = 0.01); for spirits, they were 1.21 (95% CI 0.97-1.50) and 1.46 (95% CI 0.99-2.14), respectively (p for trend = 0.02). In women, the ability to detect associations with high alcohol intake and type of beverage was limited because of a limited range of alcohol intake. The authors concluded that in men, a high consumption of beer and spirits is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer, whereas wine intake may protect against the development of lung cancer.     

Alcohol consumption and all-cause and cancer mortality among middle-aged Japanese men: seven-year follow-up of the JPHC study Cohort I. Japan Public Health Center

To examine the association between alcohol consumption and mortality in Japan, where mortality and lifestyle differ substantially from Western countries, a population-based prospective study was conducted in four public health center areas as part of the Japan Public Health Center-based prospective study on cancer and cardiovascular disease (JPHC). After excluding subjects with self-reported serious diseases at baseline, 19,231 men aged 40-59 years who reported their alcohol intake were followed from 1990 through 1996, and 548 deaths were documented. The association between all-cause mortality and alcohol consumption was J-shaped. The lowest risk was observed for men who consumed 1-149 g/week (relative risk (RR) = 0.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.46, 0.88), while the highest risk was seen for men who consumed > or =450 g/week (RR = 1.32, 95% CI 1.00, 1.74), after adjustment for possible confounders. The association did not change after excluding deaths that occurred in the first 2 years of follow-up. However, the association was modified by smoking, and beneficial effects of moderate drinking were largely limited to nonsmokers. The risk of cancer death showed a similar trend, but increased more in heavy drinkers. The background characteristics of moderate drinkers were healthier than either nondrinkers or heavy drinkers. The authors conclude that moderate alcohol consumption was associated with the lowest risks of all-cause and cancer mortality, especially among nonsmokers.     

Alcohol intake in middle age and risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality: accounting for intake variation over time

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the impact of variation in alcohol intake over time on estimated risk relations has not been adequately addressed. In this study, 6,544 middle-aged British men without previous cardiovascular disease were followed for cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality over 20 years from 1978/1980 to 1998/2000. Alcohol intake was ascertained at regular points throughout the study. A total of 922 men had a major coronary event within 20 years, 352 men had a stroke, and 1,552 men died of all causes. Baseline alcohol intake displayed U-shaped relations with cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality, with light drinkers having the lowest risks and nondrinkers and heavy drinkers having similarly high risks. However, the nature of these relations changed after adjustment for intake variation; risks associated with nondrinking were lowered, and risks associated with moderate and heavy drinking increased. Regular heavy drinkers had a 74% higher risk of a major coronary event, a 133% higher risk of stroke, and a 127% higher risk of all-cause mortality than did occasional drinkers (these estimates were 8%, 54%, and 44% before adjustment for intake variation). The findings suggest that considerable caution may be needed before any recommendations regarding acceptable limits of alcohol consumption are made.     

Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a comparison of approaches for including repeated measures of alcohol consumption

BACKGROUND: In numerous studies, alcohol intake has been found to be positively associated with colorectal cancer risk. However, the majority of studies included only one exposure measurement, which may bias the results if long-term intake is relevant.METHODS: We compared different approaches for including repeated measures of alcohol intake among 47,432 US men enrolled in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. Questionnaires including questions on alcohol intake had been completed in 1986, 1990, 1994, and 1998. The outcome was incident colorectal cancer during follow-up from 1986 to 2002.RESULTS: During follow-up, 868 members of the cohort experienced colorectal cancer. Baseline, updated, and cumulative average alcohol intakes were positively associated with colorectal cancer, with only minor differences among the approaches. These results support moderately increased risk for intake >30 g/d and weaker increased risk for lower intake. The hazard ratio for baseline alcohol intake was 1.07 (95% confidence interval = 1.02-1.11) per 10 g/d increase, which was similar for updated and cumulative average alcohol intake. Consistent moderate and high alcohol intake showed increased risk, and the relative risk decreased slightly with longer latency time. Alcohol frequency was positively associated with cancer risk among men with alcohol intake above 15 g/d.CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol intake was positively associated with colorectal cancer, with minor differences among analytic approaches (which may be attributable to low intraindividual variation during follow-up).     

Moderate alcohol consumption and bone density among postmenopausal women

Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with low bone density and high risk of fracture. However, moderate alcohol consumption may help to maintain bone density in postmenopausal women by increasing endogenous estrogens or by promoting secretion of calcitonin. We conducted a prospective study among a sample of 188 white postmenopausal women (ages 50-74) from the Nurses' Health Study who participated in a health examination between 1993 and 1995 that included bone density assessments of the lumbar spine and proximal femur. Long-term alcohol intake was calculated as the average of the 1980 and 1990 measures from a food frequency questionnaire. Women who consumed 75 g or more of alcohol per week had significantly higher bone densities at the lumbar spine compared with non-drinking women (0.951 vs. 0.849 g/cm2, p = 0.002) after adjusting for age, body mass index (kg/m2), age at menopause, use of postmenopausal estrogens, and smoking status. Further adjustment for physical activity and daily intakes of calcium, vitamin D, protein, and caffeine did not alter the results. We also observed a linear increase in spinal bone density over increasing categories of alcohol intake (p = 0.002), suggesting that alcohol intakes of less than 75 g/week may also be of benefit. This positive association was observed among both current users and never users of postmenopausal estrogens. In contrast to the lumbar spine, femoral bone density was not higher among drinkers compared with nondrinkers, although density did increase among drinkers with increasing level of alcohol consumption. Further research is needed to determine whether moderate alcohol consumption can help to protect against spinal fractures in postmenopausal women. This finding must also be evaluated within a larger scope of the risks and benefits of alcohol on heart disease, breast cancer, and hip fractures.     

A prospective study of moderate alcohol drinking and risk of diabetes in women

Several investigators have observed an association between alcohol consumption and elevated glucose levels, raising the possibility that alcohol may increase the risk of diabetes. This hypothesis was evaluated prospectively among 85,051 women participating in the Nurses' Health Study who were 34 to 59 years of age in 1980 and had no history of cancer, coronary heart disease, or diabetes. At baseline, participants completed an independently validated dietary questionnaire which included information on the consumption of beer, wine, and liquor. Incident cases of non-insulin-dependent diabetes were reported on follow-up questionnaires sent in 1982 and 1984 (98% response to at least one follow-up); 526 cases were confirmed by a supplementary questionnaire regarding symptoms, laboratory values, and treatment. The risk of diabetes decreased monotonically with increasing alcohol consumption (chi trend = -9.4, p less than 0.0001). Compared with nondrinkers, women consuming 5-14.9 g of alcohol per day (about 4-10 drinks per week) had an age-adjusted relative risk of diabetes of 0.4 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.3-0.6); for 15 g or more per day, the relative risk was 0.3 (95% CI 0.2-0.4). However, a strong inverse association between alcohol drinking and body weight explained much of the apparent protective effect of alcohol. After simultaneous adjustment for Quetelet index (weight (kg)/height (m)2), family history of diabetes, total caloric intake, and age, the relative risk of diabetes for consumers of 5-14.9 g per day was 0.8 (95% CI 0.6-1.2), and for women who drank 15+ g per day, the relative risk was 0.6 (95% CI 0.3-0.9). These data provide no support for the hypothesis that moderate alcohol intake increases the risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes.     

Drinking pattern and mortality in Danish nurses

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Moderate alcohol consumption has beneficial effects on survival. Sex differences, however, have been suggested implying less beneficial effect among women. We examined the impact of alcohol consumed on weekdays and at weekends, respectively, on risk of death among women. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: At baseline in 1993, a total of 17 772 female members of the Danish Nurse Association completed questionnaires on alcohol intake and other lifestyle factors. The influence of alcohol intake on risk of death was analyzed using Cox proportional hazard model. RESULTS: Alcohol intake of 1-3 drinks per week was associated with the lowest risk of death. Intake above six drinks per weekend (Friday through Sunday) increased risk of death from all causes by 3% for each additional drink consumed per weekend (corresponding to an increased risk by 9% per drink per weekend day). Consumption of one or more drinks per weekday (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday) increased risk by 4% for each additional drink consumed per day. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated an increasing risk of death for intake above six drinks per weekend and of one or more drinks per weekday.     

A prospective study of alcohol consumption and the risk of age-related macular degeneration

PURPOSE: Vascular risk factors, including alcohol intake, have been hypothesized to play a role in the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We examined the relationship of alcohol intake with AMD in the Physicians' Health Study (PHS). METHODS: The PHS was a randomized trial of aspirin and beta-carotene among 22,071 U.S. male physicians age 40 to 84 years at entry. A total of 21,041 physicians with complete data on alcohol consumption and no AMD at baseline were included in this analysis. Proportional hazards models were used to estimate relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: During an average follow-up period of 12.5 years, 278 physicians were confirmed by medical record review to have incident AMD resulting in vision loss ( acuity 20/30 or worse). After adjusting for age, randomized treatment assignment, and other potential risk factors, the RR for > or = 1 drink/week versus < 1 drink/week was 0.97 (CI: 0.78-1.21). For categories of alcohol intake, the RRs for those reporting alcohol consumption of < 1 drink/week, 1 drink/week, 2-4 drinks/week, 5-6 drinks/week, and > or = 1 drink/day were 1.00 (referent), 1.00 (0.65-1.55), 0.68 (0.44-1.04), 1.32 (0.89-1.95), and 1.27 (0.93-1.73), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: These prospective data indicate that alcohol intake is not appreciably associated with the risk of incident AMD. However, the width of the confidence intervals are compatible with a possible small effect (reduction or increase) in risk for low to moderate levels of alcohol intake, which warrant further investigation.     

Alcohol consumption and serum hormone levels during pregnancy.

Factors that change sex hormone levels during pregnancy may have long-term health consequences for the offspring, including changes in breast cancer risk. A cross-sectional analysis of alcohol consumption and hormone levels in 339 pregnant women sampled from the Child Health and Development Study cohort was undertaken. Alcohol intake was queried from 1959 to 1966, long before any hazards of drinking during pregnancy were publicized. Third trimester serum hormone levels including estradiol and testosterone were analyzed. Among 339 pregnant women, 196 reported some alcohol consumption during pregnancy. The drinkers were divided into three groups with intake levels of 0.2-0.5, 0.6-2.0, and 2.1-12.5 ounces of ethanol per week. The second group corresponds to a median intake of approximately 2 drinks per week, and the last group corresponds to a median intake of approximately 1 drink per day, which is considered "light" to "moderate" drinking. Maternal estradiol levels were not associated with alcohol intake during pregnancy. However, serum testosterone was significantly lower, by 12.2%, in the latter two groups of drinking pregnant women, [confidence interval (CI)=-3.0 to 25.2] and 25.6% (CI=9.2-39.5), respectively. The alcohol intakes reported are far below those shown to cause fetal alcohol syndrome, or any of the fetal alcohol effects so far studied. Light alcohol intake during pregnancy is associated with lower maternal testosterone. The health implications are uncertain, but may include an increased breast density in the daughters of drinking mothers.     

Do lipids contribute to the lack of cardio-protective effect of binge drinking: alcohol consumption and lipids in three eastern European countries

AIMS: The cardio-protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption is partly mediated by HDL cholesterol. However, epidemiological studies suggest that binge drinking may not be associated with reduced risk of heart disease; a possible explanation is that the relationship of blood lipids with binge drinking is different from that with moderate intake. We investigated this hypothesis in a population study in three eastern European countries. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study in random population samples in Novosibirsk (Russia), Krakow (Poland) and Karvina (Czech Republic). A sub-sample of 282 men aged 45-64 years who provided a fasting blood sample were analysed. Annual alcohol intake and the frequency of heavy binge drinking (> or =140 g of ethanol per session) were estimated from a graduated frequency questionnaire. RESULTS: Annual intake of alcohol was positively associated with total and HDL cholesterol. After controlling for annual intake, the frequency of heavy binge drinking was associated with increased concentrations of total and HDL cholesterol. By combining annual intake and drinking pattern, we found that men consuming >8 l of alcohol per year who had a heavy binge at least once a month had the mean total, HDL and LDL cholesterol 1.69 (SE 0.35), 0.61 (0.11) and 0.97 (0.34) mmol/l, respectively, higher than non-drinkers; this resulted in more favourable ratios of total and LDL cholesterol relative to HDL cholesterol in frequent heavy bingers. Triglycerides were not related to alcohol intake or binge drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Blood lipids do not seem to explain the apparent lack of the cardio-protective effect of binge drinking reported in epidemiological studies.     

The association of alcohol consumption with outcome of pregnancy

Patterns of alcohol consumption were assessed in 12,440 pregnant women interviewed at the time of delivery. Only 92 women (0.7 per cent) reported drinking 14 or more drinks per week, with most consuming fewer than 21 drinks per week. In the crude data, alcohol intake of 14 or more drinks per week was associated with a variety of adverse pregnancy outcomes, including low birthweight, gestational age under 37 weeks, stillbirth, and placenta abruptio. After use of logistic regression to control for confounding by demographic characteristics, smoking, parity and obstetric history, only the association of placenta abruptio with alcohol consumption of 14 or more drinks per week remained statistically significant. With the exception of placenta abruptio, alcohol intake of fewer than 14 drinks per week was not associated with and increased risk of any adverse outcome. No association was seen with congenital malformations at any level of alcohol intake.     

Joint effect of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption on mortality

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the joint effect of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption on mortality. METHODS: A population-based cohort of 66,743 Chinese men aged 30-89 in Shanghai, China recruited from 1996 to 2000. Lifestyle data were collected using structured questionnaires. As of November 2004, follow-up for the vital status of 64,515 men was completed and death information was further confirmed through record linkage with the Shanghai Vital Statistics Registry. Associations were evaluated by Cox regression analyses. RESULTS: 2514 deaths (982 from cancers, 776 from cardiovascular diseases (CVD)) were identified during 297,396 person-years of follow-up. Compared to never-smokers, both former and current smokers had significantly elevated mortality from any cause, CVD, and cancer; risk increased with amount of smoking. Intake of 1-7 drinks/week was associated with reduced risk of death, particularly CVD death (hazard ratio (HR): 0.7, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.5, 1.0), whereas intake of >42 drinks/week was related to increased mortality, particularly cancer-related death (HR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1, 2.5). The HR for total mortality associated with moderate alcohol consumption increased from 0.8 (95% CI: 0.6, 1.0) for non-smokers to 1.0 (0.9, 1.2) for moderate smokers and 1.4 (95% CI: 1.2, 1.7) for heavy smokers. Heavy drinkers and heavy smokers had the highest mortality (HR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.6, 2.4). CONCLUSIONS: Light and moderate alcohol consumption reduced mortality from CVD. This beneficial effect, however, was offset by cigarette smoking.