Community health workers can be a public health force for change in the United States: three actions for a new paradigm

Community health workers (CHWs) have gained increased visibility in the United States. We discuss how to strengthen the roles of CHWs to enable them to become collaborative leaders in dramatically changing health care from "sickness care" systems to systems that provide comprehensive care for individuals and families and supports community and tribal wellness. We recommend drawing on the full spectrum of CHWs' roles so that they can make optimal contributions to health systems and the building of community capacity for health and wellness. We also urge that CHWs be integrated into "community health teams" as part of "medical homes" and that evaluation frameworks be improved to better measure community wellness and systems change.     

The history and future of food fortification in the United States: a public health perspective

For more than 50 years, the United States federal government has regulated food fortification. During this time, the nutritional situation in the United States has improved greatly, whereas scientific information about the role of vitamins and minerals in human growth and development has increased exponentially. Concurrently, government authority to regulate food fortification has declined. This paper provides a brief history of U.S. food fortification policy and describes the contribution of food fortification to U.S. nutrient intakes. The paper highlights future directions of food fortification in the United States in light of these important developments, and addresses the issue of risk and the need to balance deficiency and toxicity in a generally well nourished population.     

Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States.

From October 4 to November 2, 2001, the first 10 confirmed cases of inhalational anthrax caused by intentional release of Bacillus anthracis were identified in the United States. Epidemiologic investigation indicated that the outbreak, in the District of Columbia, Florida, New Jersey, and New York, resulted from intentional delivery of B. anthracis spores through mailed letters or packages. We describe the clinical presentation and course of these cases of bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax. The median age of patients was 56 years (range 43 to 73 years), 70% were male, and except for one, all were known or believed to have processed, handled, or received letters containing B. anthracis spores. The median incubation period from the time of exposure to onset of symptoms, when known (n=6), was 4 days (range 4 to 6 days). Symptoms at initial presentation included fever or chills (n=10), sweats (n=7), fatigue or malaise (n=10), minimal or nonproductive cough (n=9), dyspnea (n=8), and nausea or vomiting (n=9). The median white blood cell count was 9.8 X 10(3)/mm(3) (range 7.5 to 13.3), often with increased neutrophils and band forms. Nine patients had elevated serum transaminase levels, and six were hypoxic. All 10 patients had abnormal chest X-rays; abnormalities included infiltrates (n=7), pleural effusion (n=8), and mediastinal widening (seven patients). Computed tomography of the chest was performed on eight patients, and mediastinal lymphadenopathy was present in seven. With multidrug antibiotic regimens and supportive care, survival of patients (60%) was markedly higher (<15%) than previously reported.     

Racial inequality and occupational health in the United States: the effect on white workers

While a number of studies have shown that black workers in the United States face higher levels of occupation-related hazards to health and safety than do whites, even controlling for differences in education and experience, little attention has been paid to the implications of racial inequality for the overall level of hazard in the economy. Alternative theories of the causes of occupational diseases and injuries imply that greater inequality helps white workers, by assigning them to the safer jobs, or on the contrary hurts white workers, by weakening the unity and bargaining power of the workforce as a whole. This article analyzes the impact of racial inequality on the level of hazard reported by white workers. Consistent with the institutional and Marxian theories of the labor market, the statistical findings indicate that white workers employed in occupations and industries containing greater numbers of blacks report greater exposure to hazard than comparable white workers in occupations and industries employing fewer blacks.     

Wellness general of the United States: a creative approach to promote family and community health

This article offers a creative approach to promote family and community health, beginning with the conversion of the office of Surgeon General of the United States into the Wellness General of the United States. The content ranges from federal initiatives to promote quality health research to individuals and families who will be the beneficiaries at medical clinics and community health programs. The proposal recommends changes to institutions and policies, including junk food taxes, the National Institutes of Health, the United States Preventive Services Task Force, the Healthy People 2010 initiative, the Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set, the Medicare Coverage Advisory Committee, state health mandates, local health plans, community medical clinics, and community health programs. The goal is to stimulate ideas and actions among policymakers, researchers, practitioners, educators, and students.     

Protection of human subjects in the United States: a short history.

The purpose of this article is to describe a few pivotal events that led to the development of federal regulations that now govern human subjects research in the United States.     

深圳市劳务工社区首诊制利益相关集团分析

目的:利用利益相关集团理论分析深圳市劳务工社区首诊制,为我国社区首诊制的建立和完善提供参考与借鉴。方法:系统搜集深圳市社区首诊制相关政策、工作报告等文件,结合各利益相关集团的访谈,对劳务工社区首诊制进行研究。结果:自劳务工社区首诊制实施以来,参保人数稳定增长,社区卫生服务中心业务量显著增加,医保基金运行总体平稳,各利益相关集团均可获益。结论:深圳市劳务工社区首诊制符合各利益相关者的需求,赢得各方支持。     

Evaluations of community mental health care in low- and middle-income countries: a 10-year review of the literature

Community-based models of providing mental health services are widely considered effective ways of serving individuals diagnosed with mental illness, but more comprehensive literature on these models in low- and middle-income countries is needed. This study is a systematic review of the effects of community-based models on health outcomes of adults with depression, schizophrenia, panic disorder, or bipolar disorders in middle- and low-income countries. PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Reviews were searched, returning 500 articles. The seventeen interventions included in this review in 14 countries show us that community-based mental health services can provide improvements in mental health outcomes, and the limited cost analyses suggest cost savings associated with community models of care. These findings are in line with much of the research on higher income countries. In addition, the studies also point to the gaps in the literature on costs, rural areas, bipolar disorders, and panic disorders, and note the need for further reviews of interventions targeting additional diseases, children, and adolescents as well as studies published in languages other than English. This review of the literature serves as a stepping stone for further research in community-based mental health services in low- and middle-income countries. The works reviewed here provide a base of knowledge that will assist us in taking the important next steps in program implementation and evaluation.     

Violence and health: the United States in a global perspective

Violence is a public health problem that can be understood and changed. Research over the past 2 decades has demonstrated that violence can be prevented and that, in some cases, prevention programs are more cost-effective than other policy options such as incarceration. The United States has much to contribute to-and stands to gain much from-global efforts to prevent violence. A new World Health Organization initiative presents an opportunity for the United States to work with other nations to find cost-effective ways of preventing violence and reducing its enormous costs.     

Community health workers in pediatric asthma education programs in the United States: A systematic literature review

The involvement of community health workers (CHWs) has been shown to be effective at improving health outcomes for those who suffer from chronic diseases. This systematic review provides an overview of the current landscape of CHW-delivered asthma education programs for parents/caregivers who have children with asthma in the United States. Findings suggest that the use of CHWs are effective at reducing racial/ethnic as well as health disparities among children with asthma. However, future research is needed to develop evidence-based asthma education programs that can reduce asthma morbidity and disparities faced among all children with asthma in the United States.     

Contraceptive injections by community health workers in Uganda: a nonrandomized community trial

OBJECTIVE: To compare the safety and quality of contraceptive injections by community-based health workers with those of clinic-based nurses in a rural African setting. METHODS: A nonrandomized community trial tested provision of injectable Depo Provera (DMPA) by community reproductive health workers and compared it with routine DPMA provision at health units in Nakasongola District, Uganda. The primary outcome measures were safety, acceptability and continuation rates. FINDINGS: A total of 945 new DMPA users were recruited by community workers, clinic-based nurses and midwives. Researchers successfully followed 777 (82% follow-up): 449 community worker clients and 328 clinic-based clients. Ninety-five percent of community-worker clients were "satisfied" or "highly satisfied" with services, and 85% reported receiving information on side-effects. There were no serious injection site problems in either group. Similarly, there was no significant difference between continuation to second injection (88% among clients of community-based workers, 85% among clinic-going clients), nor were there significant differences in other measures of safety, acceptability and quality. CONCLUSION: Community-based distribution (CBD) of injectable contraceptives is now routine in some countries in Asia and Latin America, but is practically unknown in Africa, where arguably the need for this practice is greatest. This research reinforces experience from other regions suggesting that well-trained community health workers can safely provide contraceptive injections.