Tumour necrosis factor-mediated cell death pathways do not contribute to muscle fibre death in dystrophinopathies

There is evidence that apoptotic cell death mechanisms contribute to muscle fibre loss in dystrophinopathies, but little knowledge about the activators of the final degrading caspase cascade in muscle fibre apoptosis. As mitochondria-related activation of this caspase cascade, through e.g. APAF-1, could not be proven in dystrophin-deficient muscle, this study searches for other prospective candidates that may directly trigger apoptotic cell degradation by mitochondria-independent pathways involving the interaction of tumour necrosis factor- (TNF-) and TRAIL with death receptors and subsequent activation of caspase-8. The expression of TNF-, TNF-R1, TRAIL, NF-B and caspase-8 were studied in muscle biopsy specimens from 14 patients with a dystrophinopathy [10 Duchenne muscular dystrophies (DMD), 2 Becker MD, and 2 DMD carriers] by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. In all types of dystrophinopathies, necrotic muscle fibres undergoing myophagocytosis displayed strong expression of TNF-, TNF-R1, and TRAIL, which, however, was attributed to phagocytosing cells and not to the muscle fibres themselves. There was no up-regulation in normal-shaped or atrophic non-necrotic muscle fibres, or in intact muscle fibre segments adjacent to segmental necrosis and myophagocytosis. The expression profiles of caspase-8 and NF-B resembled that of normal control muscle. There were likewise no significant differences in the Western blot analyses between normal control and dystrophin-deficient muscle. Based on these findings, a contribution of TNF- or TRAIL-mediated cell death pathways to muscle fibre apoptosis or necrosis in dystrophinopathies could not be confirmed.     

Identification of caveolae and caveolin in C6 glioma cells

Caveolae (CAV) constitute a novel subcellular transport vesicle that has received special attention based on its proven and postulated participation in transcytosis, potocytosis, and in cell signaling events. One of the principal components of CAV are caveolin protein isoforms. Here, we have undertaken the immunochemical identification of CAV and the known caveolin isoforms (1alpha, 1beta, 2 and 3) in cultured rat C6 glioma cells. Immunoblot analysis revealed that particulate fractions from rat C6 glioma cells express caveolin-1 and caveolin-2. The relative detergent-insolubility of these caveolin isoforms was also determined by Western blot analysis. Indirect immunofluorescence analysis with caveolin-1 and -2 antibodies revealed staining patterns typical of CAV's known subcellular distribution and localization. For both caveolin isoforms immunocytochemical staining was characterized by intensely fluorescent puncta throughout the cytoplasm and diffuse micropatches at the level of the plasmalemma. Perinuclear staining was also detected, consistent and suggestive of caveolin's localization in the trans Golgi region. The caveolin-1 and -2 immunoreactivity seen in Western blots and immunocytochemically is related to structurally relevant CAV as supported by the isolation of caveolin-enriched membrane complexes using two different methods. Light-density, Triton X-100-insoluble caveolin-1- and caveolin-2-enriched fractions were obtained after fractionation of rat C6 glioma cells and their separation over 5-40% discontinuous sucrose-density gradients. Similar fractions were obtained using a detergent-free, sodium carbonate-based fractionation method. These results further support the localization of CAV and caveolins in glial cells. In addition, they demonstrate that cultured C6 glioma cells can be useful as a model system to study the role of CAV and caveolins in subcellular transport and signal transduction events in glial cells and the brain.     

Hypoxia-ischemia upregulates TRAIL and TRAIL receptors in the immature rat brain

The immature brain is susceptible to inflammatory injury induced by hypoxia-ischemia (HI) or infection, which causes serious neurodevelopmental disabilities in the survivors of preterm births. Recently, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and its receptors (death receptor DR4/5 and decoy receptor DcR1/2) were reported to mediate various neuroinflammatory responses. However, little information is available regarding the role of TRAIL and its receptors in the immature brain after HI. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the expression of TRAIL and its receptors in the immature brain after HI and relate this expression to neurological function. We performed right common carotid artery ligation followed by hypoxia (6% O(2), 37°C) for 2.5 h to induce HI in postnatal day 3 rats. The distribution of TRAIL and its receptors, caspase-3 and CD68-labeled microglia/macrophages was evaluated 24 h after HI by immunostaining. The protein and mRNA expression of TRAIL and DR5 was measured by Western blot and real-time PCR, respectively. Delayed neuronal loss was evaluated by NeuN and Nissl staining 7 days after HI. Furthermore, neurological deficits were evaluated by a righting reflex test, time of eye opening and T-maze test. The expression of TRAIL, DR5 and DcR1/2 receptors and caspase-3 was more pronounced in the ipsilateral hemisphere compared with the contralateral part and the control group 24 h after HI. DR5/active caspase-3 double-positive cells were observed at 24 h after HI in the ipsilateral hemisphere but not in the contralateral hemisphere. The TRAIL and CD68 double-labeled cells were more pronounced in the ipsilateral cortical regions compared with the corresponding regions of the contralateral part. HI also resulted in a significant increase in TRAIL and DR5 protein and mRNA expression at 24 h, which corresponded to neuronal cell loss 7 days after HI. Furthermore, the HI group displayed impaired neurobehavioral development compared with the control group (p < 0.05). Altogether our results show that the TNF-α superfamily ligand TRAIL is induced on CD68+ microglia/macrophages after perinatal HI and that one of its receptors, DR5, is induced on neocortical neurons and glial cells. That many DR5+ cells were also caspase-3+ strongly supports the conclusion that these signaling molecules are involved in the delayed loss of neurons in the neocortex and in the neurobehavioral deficits that are often seen after perinatal HI.     

去甲基药、化疗药及TRAIL联合诱导神经母细胞瘤细胞凋亡的研究

目的探讨去甲基药5-氮杂胞苷、肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体（TRAIL）及化疗药联合诱导神经母细胞瘤细胞株SH-SYSY（SYSY）凋亡的作用及其发生机制。方法应用逆转录-聚合酶链反应（RT-PCR）方法检测5-氮杂胞苷作用前后SYSY细胞caspase-8的表达；应用四甲基偶氮唑蓝（MTT）比色法及流式细胞仪检测TRAIL、5-氮杂胞苷＋TRAIL、5-氮杂胞苷＋caspase-8抑制剂zIETD-FMK＋TRAIL及5-氮杂胞苷＋化疗药＋TRAIL对SYSY细胞生长及凋亡的影响。结果SYSY细胞不表达caspase-8，5-氮杂胞苷作用1、3、5、7d的SY5Y细胞caspase-8表达逐渐增加。SY5Y细胞对TRAIL不敏感，经5-氮杂胞苷诱导表达caspase-8的SY5Y细胞对TRAIL敏感；化疗药可增强SYSY细胞对TRAIL的敏感性。结论5-氮杂胞苷可通过上调SYSY细胞caspase-8表达而逆转SYSY细胞对TRAIL诱导凋亡的耐受，化疗药可进一步增强TRAIL对SYSY细胞的诱导凋亡作用。     

Short incubation with 2-methoxyestradiol kills malignant glioma cells independent of death receptor 5 upregulation

We investigated the effects of 2-methoxyestradiol (2-ME), a promising new antitumor agent, on viable cell number and nuclear morphology of malignant glioma cells (three human and one rat glioma cell lines) and analyzed the controversial role of death recepor 5 (DR5) upregulation in 2-ME induced apoptosis. Microtiter-tetrazolium (MTT) assays showed a significant reduction of viable cells after incubation with 2 microM and 20 microM 2-ME for 48 and 72 hours in all cultures. In the 20 microM concentration, there were even significant effects in the majority of shorter incubation periods. Hoechst 33258 stains showed a substantial amount of cells with nuclear fragmentation indicating a late stage of apoptosis after 20 microM 2-ME treatments of 24 hours and more. The role of the DR5-mediated extrinsic apoptotic pathway was further studied in the three human glioma cell lines; 50 ng/ml of the DR5 ligand TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) and 2 microM 2-ME showed no synergism, as determined by MTT assays. Real-time PCR revealed no significantly increased amount of DR5 mRNA, suggesting that receptor upregulation does not play a major role for 2-ME-induced apoptosis in glioma cells, in contrast to data for a breast cancer cell line in the literature.     

Expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and caspase genes promotes neuronal apoptosis in pontine reticular formation after spinal cord transection

We identified apoptotic neurons in pontine reticular formation (PRF), the origin of pontine reticulospinal fibers, in adult Sprague-Dawley rats after complete spinal cord transection (SCT) at T8 level. SCT also increased the expression in PRF of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, caspase-1, or caspase-3 mRNA. This was followed by an augmented expression of activated caspase-3 protein, an increase in caspase-3 activity, and expression of a cleaved fragment of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), a proteolytic substrate of the activated caspase-3. Microinjection bilaterally into the PRF of an antiserum against TNF-alpha attenuated the expression of IL-6 mRNA and up-regulation of caspase-3 mRNA, and a caspase-3 inhibitor, DEVD-CHO, suppressed the augmentation in activated caspase-3 or cleaved PARP expression after SCT. Both treatments also reduced the number of SCT-induced apoptotic PRF neurons. We conclude that PRF neurons in adult mammalian brain may actively degrade themselves after SCT through apoptosis, via signaling processes that involve activation of proinflammatory cytokine genes and the intracellular caspase-3 pathway.     

Dopamine induces TNFalpha and TNF-R1 expression in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells

Cytotoxic concentrations of dopamine (100-500 microM DA) induce expression of tumour necrosis factor receptor-1 (TNF-R1) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. TNFalpha expression is dose-dependent and can also be detected after 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium iodide (MPP) treatment. The expression of TNF-R1 is also dose-dependent, but was not observed in 6-OHDA or MPP-treatment. Cells not expressing TNF-R1 were insensitive to TNFalpha, whereas those treated with DA showed a further decrease in viability when subsequently treated with TNFalpha. Thus, DA treatment confers sensitivity to TNFalpha. The decrease of cell viability caused by DA was in part prevented by neutralizing TNFalpha with anti-TNFalpha. As TNF-R1 is increased in substantia nigra of Parkinsonian brains, we suggest that nonvesiculated DA might also play a role in inducing TNF-R1 expression and predispose the neuron to the action of cytokines released in a microglia-mediated inflammatory response.     

Methimazole-induced cell death in rat olfactory receptor neurons occurs via apoptosis triggered through mitochondrial cytochrome c-mediated caspase-3 activation pathway

The administration of methimazole is known to induce cell death in rat olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). We investigated whether this injury occurs via apoptosis or through necrosis and whether it involves the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway. Rats were intraperitoneally injected with vehicle (control) or 300 mg/kg methimazole. The experimental animals were also administered vehicle or a caspase-3 or caspase-9 inhibitor 30 min earlier. The administration of methimazole induced cell death predominantly in the mature ORNs and partially reduced olfactory sensitivity in the rats; the injured cells were TUNEL-positive and showed a nuclear staining pattern. This insult induced cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and a significant increase in the immunoreactivity of activated caspase-3 and caspase-9 as well as that of cleaved poly-ADP-ribose-polymerase; in addition, it caused a significant increase in the fluorogenic activity of caspase-3 and caspase-9. However, it did not affect the immunoreactivity of activated caspase-8 or the fluorogenic activity of caspase-8. Pretreatment with a caspase-3 or caspase-9 inhibitor nearly completely prevented the morphologic, biochemical, and functional changes induced by methimazole. These findings suggest strongly that methimazole-induced cell death in rat ORNs is predominantly apoptosis; moreover, the majority of this apoptotic cell death is triggered through mitochondrial cytochrome c-mediated caspase-3 activation pathway, and both caspase-3 and caspase-9 inhibitors can prevent methimazole-induced cell death in the ORNs.     

Varicella-zoster virus—induced apoptosis in MeWo cells is accompanied by down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression

Varicella-zoster virus infects multiple human and monkey cells in culture. The mode of cell death appears to be autophagy or apoptosis. Analysis of VZV-infected human melanoma (MeWo) cells revealed that Bcl-2 mRNA and protein levels were decreased significantly 64 and 72 hpi (hours post infection), accompanied by the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria into the cytoplasm. Western blot analysis of virus-infected cells revealed activation of caspase-8, a marker for the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis, and caspase-9, a marker for the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis at 64 and 72 hpi. Significant increases in the levels of cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved poly (ADP) ribose polymerase (PARP) were also seen at the height of cytopathic effect. Thus VZV induces apoptosis in MeWo cells in which Bcl-2 is down-regulated. Future studies will determine differences in the cascade of apoptotic events in non-neuronal cells compared to neurons that allow VZV to become latent.     

Evidence of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 signaling in human temporal lobe epilepsy

Seizures, particularly when prolonged, may cause neuronal loss within vulnerable brain structures such as the hippocampus, in part by activating programmed (apoptotic) cell death pathways. Experimental modeling suggests that seizures activate tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and engage downstream pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling cascades. Whether such TNFR1-mediated signaling occurs in human temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is unknown. Presently, we examined this pathway in hippocampus surgically obtained from refractory TLE patients and contrasted findings to matched autopsy controls. Western blotting established that total protein levels of the TNFR1 proximal signaling adaptor TNFR-associated protein with death domain (TRADD), cleaved initiator caspase-8 and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) were higher in TLE samples than controls. Intracellular distribution analyses revealed raised cytoplasmic levels of TNFR1, TRADD and the caspase-8 recruitment adaptor Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), and higher levels of TRADD and cleaved caspase-8 in the microsomal fraction, in TLE samples. Immunoprecipitation studies detected TRADD-FADD binding, and fluorescence microscopy revealed TRADD co-localization with FADD in TLE hippocampus. These data suggest that TNFR1 signaling is engaged in the hippocampus of patients with refractory temporal lobe epilepsy.     

Mitomycin C induces apoptosis in human epidural scar fibroblasts after surgical decompression for spinal cord injury

Numerous studies have shown that topical application of mitomycin C after surgical decompression effectively reduces scar adhesion. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of mitomycin C on the proliferation and apoptosis of human epidural scar fibroblasts. Human epidural scar fibroblasts were treated with various concentrations of mitomycin C(1, 5, 10, 20, 40 μg/m L) for 12, 24 and 48 hours. Mitomycin C suppressed the growth of these cells in a dose-and time-dependent manner. Mitomycin C upregulated the expression levels of Fas, DR4, DR5, cleaved caspase-8/9, Bax, Bim and cleaved caspase-3 proteins, and it downregulated Bcl-2 and Bcl-x L expression. In addition, inhibitors of caspase-8 and caspase-9(Z-IETD-FMK and Z-LEHD-FMK, respectively) did not fully inhibit mitomycin C-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, mitomycin C induced endoplasmic reticulum stress by increasing the expression of glucose-regulated protein 78, CAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein(CHOP) and caspase-4 in a dose-dependent manner. Salubrinal significantly inhibited the mitomycin C-induced cell viability loss and apoptosis, and these effects were accompanied by a reduction in CHOP expression. Our results support the hypothesis that mitomycin C induces human epidural scar fibroblast apoptosis, at least in part, via the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway.     

Caspase activities and tumor necrosis factor receptor R1 (p55) level are elevated in the substantia nigra from Parkinsonian brain

Summary. The activities of caspase-1 and caspase-3 were measured by use of fluoropeptides as substrates for the first time in the brain (substantia nigra, caudate nucleus, putamen, cerebellum, and frontal cortex) from control and parkinsonian patients. The activities of caspases in the brain were significantly higher in the substantia nigra from parkinsonian patients than those in the brain from control patients (p < 0.01). However, the activities of caspases in the caudate nucleus, putamen, cerebellum, and frontal cortex showed no significant difference between parkinsonian and control patients. The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor R1 (TNF-R1, p55) level was also elevated in the substantia nigra of the parkinsonian brain in comparison with that of controls (p < 0.05). Since both caspases and TNF-R1 may play important roles in apoptotic cell death through TNF-α-induced signaling pathway, our present data suggest the presence of a proapoptotic environment in the substantia nigra of parkinsonian brain, probably inducing vulnerability of neurons and glias towards a variety of noxious factors. Received May 17, 1999; accepted November 15, 1999     

Stem-cell-like glioma cells are resistant to TRAIL/Apo2L and exhibit down-regulation of caspase-8 by promoter methylation

Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL/Apo2L) is a promising cancer drug. However, many tumours are resistant to TRAIL-based therapies. Glioma cells with stem cell features (SCG), such as CD133 expression and neurosphere formation, have been recently identified to be more resistant to cytotoxic drugs than glioma cells lacking stem-cell-like features (NSCGs). Here we report that SCGs are completely resistant to 100–2,000 ng/ml TRAIL, whereas NSCGs revealed a moderate sensitivity to TRAIL. We found that SCGs exhibited only low levels of caspase-8 mRNA and protein, known to be indispensable for TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In addition, we detected hypermethylation of CASP8 promoter in SCGs, whereas NSCGs exhibited a non-methylated CASP8 promoter. Reexpression of caspase-8 by 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine was not sufficient to restore TRAIL sensitivity in SCGs cells, suggesting that additional factors cause TRAIL resistance in SCGs. Our data suggest that therapy with TRAIL, either as monotherapy or in combination with demethylating agents, is not effective in treating glioblastoma because SCGs are not targeted by such treatment.     

Apoptotic death following Fas activation in human oligodendrocyte hybrid cultures

The purpose of this study was to determine how oligodendrocytes die following Fas receptor activation. An immortalized human oligodendrocyte hybrid line (MO3.13) was challenged with Fas ligand (FasL), and cell death was assessed by flow cytometry and DNA gel electrophoresis. Caspase activation was determined by either Western immunoblotting on cell extracts or by whole-cell flow cytometry. FasL challenge clearly induced substantial apoptotic cell death in the oligodendrocyte hybrid cell line, as judged by flow cytometry and by the presence of prominent low molecular weight DNA banding patterns after gel electrophoresis. Western immunoblots showed marked increases in cleaved caspase-1, 8, and 3, indicating that the extrinsic Fas death receptor-induced pathway was activated. The intrinsic mitochondrial pathway was also activated, but only at a minimal level. These findings demonstrate that there are several independent molecular sites within the extrinsic caspase cascade in oligodendrocytes where inhibitory compounds may be capable of blocking cell death in vivo.     

TRAIL联合美伐他汀增强对SWO-38细胞的抑瘤作用及其机制研究

目的 探讨肿瘤坏死因子相关细胞凋亡诱导配体(TRAIL)单独或联合美伐他汀对人胶质瘤细胞SWO-38增殖和凋亡的影响及其作用机制. 方法 人胶质瘤细胞SWO-38分别用人重组可溶性TRAIL蛋白(rsTRAIL)、美伐他汀及两者联用处理;MTT法检测细胞增殖情况;双染色流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡情况;间接免疫荧光染色结合流式细胞技术检测细胞表面TRAIL R_1/DR_4和TRAIL R_2/DR_5分子表达;RT-PCR方法检测TRAIL R_1/DR_4和TRAIL R_2/DR_5 mRNA表达. 结果 rsTRAⅡ,和美伐他汀在单用或联用时均可抑制SWO-38细胞增殖,诱导其凋亡,并在一定范围内呈时间、剂量依赖性;联合用药组细胞增殖抑制率和凋亡率明显高于单用rsTRAIL或美伐他汀组,比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).美伐他汀单独或联合rsTRAIL作用于SWO-38细胞72 h后,死亡受体TRAIL R_1/DR_4和TRAIL R_2/DR_5在细胞表面的表达明显较对照组细胞增强,其mRNA表达水平亦相应增加,比较差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05). 结论 rsTRAIL与美伐他汀联合使用可增强对人胶质瘤细胞SWO-38的增殖抑制和凋亡诱导效应,其机制可能是美伐他汀增加SWO-38细胞TRAIL R_1/DR_4和TRAIL R_2/DR_5 mRNA表达、上调细胞表面TRAIL死亡受体从而增加其对rsTRAIL的敏感性.     

肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体诱导胶质瘤细胞凋亡机制研究

目的 探讨肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体(TRAIL)诱导胶质瘤细胞凋亡的机制.方法 以人重组可溶性TRAIL蛋白(rsTRAIL)处理人胶质瘤细胞U87;AnnexinV-FITC/PI双染色流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡;DiOC6荧光染色流式细胞术检测细胞线粒体跨膜电位(△ψm);比色法测定细胞caspase-3、8、9活性的变化;ELISA法检测胞浆cytC浓度;观察caspase-8阻断剂(Z-IETD-fmk)对U87细胞凋亡、△ψm和caspase-3、8、9活性变化的影响. 结果 rsTRAIL以时间依赖方式诱导U87细胞凋亡.同时导致U87细胞△ψm进行性下降,caspase-3、8、9活性及胞浆内cyt C浓度升高:caspase-8阻断剂可明显减弱rsTRAIL对U87细胞的上述生物学效应. 结论 TRAU通过激活caspase-8间接启动线粒体凋亡途径诱导恶性胶质瘤细胞U87凋亡.     

Signaling of cell death and cell survival following focal cerebral ischemia: life and death struggle in the penumbra

Focal ischemia by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) results in necrosis at the infarct core and activation of complex signal pathways for cell death and cell survival in the penumbra. Recent studies have shown activation of the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of caspase-mediated cell death, as well as activation of the caspase-independent signaling pathway of apoptosis in several paradigms of focal cerebral ischemia by transient MCAO to adult rats and mice. The extrinsic pathway (cell-death receptor pathway) is initiated by activation of the Fas receptor after binding to the Fas ligand (Fas-L); increased Fas and Fas-L expression has been shown following focal ischemia. Moreover, focal ischemia is greatly reduced in mice expressing mutated (nonfunctional) Fas. Increased expression of caspase-1, -3, -8, and -9, and of cleaved caspase-8, has been observed in the penumbra. Activation of the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway following focal ischemia is triggered by Bax translocation to and competition with Bcl-2 and other members of the Bcl-2 family in the mitochondria membrane that is followed by cytochrome c release to the cytosol. Bcl-2 over-expression reduces infarct size. Cytochrome c binds to Apaf-1 and dATP and recruits and cleaves pro-caspase-9 in the apoptosome. Both caspase-8 and caspase-9 activate caspase-3, among other caspases, which in turn cleave several crucial substrates, including the DNA-repairing enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), into fragments of 89 and 28 kDa. Inhibition of caspase-3 reduces the infarct size, further supporting caspase-3 activation following transient MCAO. In addition, caspase-8 cleaves Bid, the truncated form of which has the capacity to translocate to the mitochondria and induce cytochrome c release. The volume of brain infarct is greatly reduced in Bid-deficient mice, thus indicating activation of the mitochondrial pathway by cell-death receptors following focal ischemia. Recent studies have shown the mitochondrial release of other factors; Smac/DIABLO (Smac: second mitochondrial activator of caspases: DIABLO: direct IAP binding protein with low pI) binds to and neutralizes the effects of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP). Finally, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) translocates to the mitochondria and the nucleus following focal ischemia and produces peripheral chromatin condensation and large-scale DNA strands, thus leading to the caspase-independent cell death pathway of apoptosis. Delineation of the pro-apoptotic and pro-survival signals in the penumbra may not only increase understanding of the process but also help to rationalize strategies geared to reducing brain damage targeted at the periphery of the infarct core.     

Caspase-3-mediated cleavage of PHF-1 tau during apoptosis irrespective of excitotoxicity and oxidative stress: an implication to Alzheimer's disease

Excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and apoptosis have been recognized as routes to neuronal death in various neurological diseases. We examined the possibility that PHF-1 tau, a substrate for various proteases, would be selectively cleaved depending upon routes of neuronal death. Cleavage form of PHF-1 tau was not observed in cortical cell cultures exposed to excitotoxins or oxidative stress that cause neuronal cell necrosis. PHF-1 tau was cleaved within 8 h following exposure of cortical cell cultures to apoptosis-inducing agents. This cleavage was blocked by inclusion of zDEVD-fmk, an inhibitor of caspase-3, and accompanied by activation of caspase-3. Levels and cleavage of PHF-1 tau were markedly increased in AD brain compared with control. Moreover, PHF-1 tau and active caspase-3 were colocalized mostly in tangle-bearing neurons. The current findings suggest that PHF-1 tau is cleaved by caspase-3 during apoptosis and neurodegenerative process in AD.     

Pathways leading to apoptotic neurodegeneration following trauma to the developing rat brain

Trauma triggers diffuse apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain. To explore the pathogenesis of this phenomenon we investigated the involvement of three possible mechanisms: death receptor activation, activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway by cytochrome c release into the cytoplasm, and changes in trophic support provided by endogenous neurotrophins. We detected a decrease in the expression of bcl-2 and bcl-x(L), two antiapoptotic proteins that decrease mitochondrial membrane permeability, an increase in cytochrome c immunoreactivity in the cytosolic fraction, and an activation of caspase-9 in brain regions which show apoptotic neurodegeneration following percussion brain trauma in 7-day-old rats. Increase in the expression of the death receptor Fas was revealed by RT-PCR analysis, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry, as was activation of caspase-8 in cortex and thalamus. Apoptotic neurodegeneration was accompanied by an increase in the expression of BDNF and NT-3 in vulnerable brain regions. The pancaspase inhibitor z-VAD.FMK ameliorated apoptotic neurodegeneration with a therapeutic time window of up to 8 h after trauma. These findings suggest involvement of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways in neurodegeneration following trauma to the developing rat brain. Upregulation of neurotrophin expression may represent an endogenous mechanism that limits this apoptotic process.