Medical futility: predicting outcome of intensive care unit patients by nurses and doctors--a prospective comparative study

OBJECTIVE: First, to assess the pattern of the prediction of intensive care unit patients' outcome with regard to survival and quality of life by nurses and doctors and, second, to compare these predictions with the quality of life reported by the surviving patients. DESIGN: Prospective opinion survey of critical care providers; comparison with follow-up for survival, functional status, and quality of life. SETTING: Six-bed medical intensive care unit subunit of a 1,000-bed tertiary care, university hospital. PATIENTS: All patients older than 18 yrs, admitted to the medical intensive care unit for >24 hrs over a 1-yr period (December 1997 to November 1998). INTERVENTIONS: Daily judgment of eventual futility of medical interventions by nurses and doctors with respect to survival and future quality of life. Telephone interviews with discharged patients for quality of life and functional status 6 months after intensive care unit admission. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Data regarding 521 patients including 1,932 daily judgments by nurses and doctors were analyzed. Disagreement on at least one of the daily judgments by nurses and doctors was found in 21% of all patients and in 63% of the dying patients. The disagreements more frequently concerned quality of life than survival. The higher the Simplified Acute Physiology Score and the longer the intensive care unit stay, the more divergent judgments were observed (p <.001). In surviving and dying patients, nurses gave more pessimistic judgment and considered withdrawal more often than did doctors (p <.001). Patients only rarely indicated bad quality of life (6%) and severe physical disability (2%) 6 months after intensive care unit admission. Compared with patients' own assessment, neither nurses nor doctors correctly predicted quality of life; false pessimistic and false optimistic appreciation was given. CONCLUSIONS: Disagreement between nurses and doctors was frequent with respect to their judgment of futility of medical interventions. Disagreements most often concerned the most severely ill patients. Nurses, being more pessimistic in general, were more often correct than doctors in the judgment of dying patients but proposed treatment withdrawal in some very sick patients who survived. Future quality of life cannot reliably be predicted either by doctors or by nurses.     

Is it time to use evoked potentials to predict outcome in comatose children and adults?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the value of multimodality-evoked potential recordings in predicting outcome in comatose children. DESIGN: Prospective series and literature review. SETTING: Pediatric ICU in a university hospital. PATIENTS: Forty-one children with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 8, who were admitted to the pediatric ICU between 1984 and 1989. INTERVENTIONS: Forty-one patients underwent brainstem auditory-evoked potential testing within 72 hrs of admission. Of these patients, 37 also had somatosensory-evoked potential testing at the same time. Four patients did not receive somatosensory-evoked potential testing for various nonmedical reasons. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Multimodality-evoked potential recordings were used to predict outcome in these comatose children. Outcomes were categorized as bad (death or chronic vegetative state) or good (all other outcomes). Survivor outcomes were determined at discharge and on subsequent follow-up visits from 1 to 3 yrs later. There were no false pessimistic predictions, and two false optimistic predictions in this series. A comprehensive literature review of coma outcome prediction, using multimodality-evoked potential recordings, revealed 20 series with 982 additional patients in whom the predictive errors of false optimism and false pessimism could be determined. Five cases of false pessimism and 99 cases of false optimism were identified in the 982 additional patients. If neonates are excluded, the false pessimism number is reduced to three. CONCLUSIONS: A bad outcome can be reliably predicted using multimodality-evoked potential recordings with little chance of a false pessimistic prediction. The acceptable error of false optimism occurs frequently, since patients often die of progressive neurologic and nonneurologic problems that may or may not be present at the time of the evoked potential recordings. Thus, in comatose children, multimodality-evoked potential recordings are a useful adjunct to clinical examination and other diagnostic aids in predicting outcome and in making decisions regarding the degree of intervention to offer.     

Recognition and communication of patient deterioration in a regional hospital: A multi-methods study.

OBJECTIVE: In this study we aimed to identify the cues that ward nurses and doctors use to identify patient deterioration and, secondly, examine the assessment and communication of deterioration in patients on acute wards of a regional hospital. METHODS: Mixed methods case study design in a 220 bed regional hospital. Case studies originated from patients admitted unexpectedly to ICU from general wards (n=17). Data collection occurred within 72h of the patient's admission to ICU. Interviews with 11 nurses and 14 doctors, and chart audit of 17 patient records for the 24h prior to ICU were undertaken. RESULTS: The results demonstrate reliance on vital signs for nurses and doctors for initial identification of patient deterioration. Subsequent to this, nurses relied on assessment of the patient's physical capabilities whilst doctors undertook additional clinical investigations. Admission category and co-morbidities increased clinicians' identification of deterioration but the extent of assessment was dictated by 'usual practice' for the regional hospital, the ward or particular patient category. A lack of timely referral to more senior clinicians was identified. Chart audit found that 13 (76%) patients had clinical markers prior to ICU admission and 10 (56%) had these markers for >2h in the previous 24h. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights inadequate communication between clinicians and lack of process for ensuring timely management when patients deteriorate in a regional hospital. The use of casual or locum staff who are less familiar with the clinical culture of regional hospitals may influence the recognition of, and response to, deteriorating ward patients.     

采用多种形式对ICU护士进行分层培训的实践

目的探讨综合ICU继续教育的方法与效果。方法根据综合ICU护理人员的职称、学历和工作能力的不同,将护士分为:新手护士、合格护士、熟练护士、专科护士4层,采用多种形式进行分层培训。将培训前后护理人员参加护理部季度考核成绩、患者与家属的满意度、医生对护士的满意度进行比较。结果采用多种形式进行分层培训后护理人员季度考核合格率高于培训前(P0.01或P0.05),患者与家属满意度由81.7%上升到95.9%,医生对护士的满意度由培训前的74.5%上升到91.7%。结论采用多种形式对综合ICU护理人员进行分层培训,能调动护士的积极性,挖掘护士的潜能,提高护理工作质量和ICU护士的专业水平。     

Enteric colonization with antibiotic resistant bacteria in nurses working in intensive care units

To determine whether nurses who worked in an intensive care unit (ICU) might acquire enteric colonization with Gram-negative aerobic bacteria from their patients, rectal swabs were obtained from the patients and nurses in the ICU, from nurses working in a coronary care unit (CCU) and from young women with urinary tract infection who had not been exposed to the hospital environment. The healthy women differed from the patients in that their enteric flora contained greater numbers of lactose fermenting bacteria, they were less often colonized by resistant organisms and when resistant bacteria were present they were less abundant than in the patients. Nurses who had been treated with antimicrobial agents during the preceding six months were colonized more often with antibiotic resistant enteric bacteria. There was no evidence of transmission of antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli from patients to nurses largely because this species had been virtually eliminated from the patients by intensive use of antimicrobial agents. Instead, several multiresistant species of Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Pseudomonas were isolated from the patients and ICU nurses. It was difficult, however, to define clearly patient-nurse controls who had no exposure to the ICU patients. These observations and those of other investigators emphasize the need for examination of control populations and of therapeutic use of antibiotics when examining the issue of environmental acquisition of antibiotic resistant bacteria.     

Accuracy of predictions of survival at admission to the intensive care unit

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the accuracy of outcome predictions made on the day of intensive care unit (ICU) admission by critical care physicians, critical care fellows, and primary team physicians. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifty-nine consecutive patients admitted to a Medical-Surgical ICU were included in the study.Two ICU attending physicians and two critical care fellows, not involved in medical management, evaluated each new ICU patient at admission and after 48 to 72 hours. Altogether six ICU attendings and six fellows were involved in the study. Each investigator separately assigned probability to each patient of being discharged alive from the ICU and the hospital. On the day of admission the primary service was also asked to estimate the likelihood of successful outcome. All values are expressed in percentiles. Statistical analysis was performed by a logistic regression procedure with a binary outcome. Data are presented as mean +/- SD. RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients were surveyed. Twenty-six (44%) patients died in the ICU, 3 (5%) died in the hospital wards, and 30 (51%) were discharged alive from the hospital. ICU attendings most reliably and accurately estimated patient outcome on admission compared with critical care fellows and primary team physicians. ICU attendings were more consistent than ICU fellows at predicting outcome at 48 and 72 hours. Clinical predictions were better for patients at the extremes of disease severity, and the accuracy of predictions in these patients was highest. Accuracy was diminished in patients with moderate compromise of clinical status. CONCLUSION: ICU attendings predicted most accurately and consistently the final outcome of patients, and ICU fellows estimated outcome more reliably than the primary service. For the most part, the primary service tended to overestimate the probability of favorable outcome of patients for whom ICU admission had been requested. Additionally, clinical accuracy of survival or mortality was best for those patients at the extremes of clinical compromise: this point seems to confirm the validity of using clinical judgement as a guide to restricting ICU resources for those severely compromised or mildly compromised.This study also indicates that predictions of outcome in critically ill patients made within days of admission are statistically valid but not sufficiently reliable to justify irrevocable clinical decisions at present.     

Occurrence of delirium is severely underestimated in the ICU during daily care

Objective  Delirium is associated with prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) stay and higher mortality. Therefore, the recognition of delirium is important. We investigated whether intensivists and ICU nurses could clinically identify the presence of delirium in ICU patients during daily care. Methods  All ICU patients in a 3-month period who stayed for more than 48 h were screened daily for delirium by attending intensivists and ICU nurses. Patients were screened independently for delirium by a trained group of ICU nurses who were not involved in the daily care of the patients under study. The Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM-ICU) was used as a validated screening instrument for delirium. Values are expressed as median and interquartile range (IQR; P25–P75). Results  During the study period, 46 patients (30 male, 16 female), median age 73 years (IQR = 64–80), with an ICU stay of 6 days (range 4–11) were evaluated. CAM-ICU scores were obtained during 425 patient days. Considering the CAM-ICU as the reference standard, delirium occurred in 50% of the patients with a duration of 3 days (range 1–9). Days with delirium were poorly recognized by doctors (sensitivity 28.0%; specificity 100%) and ICU nurses (sensitivity 34.8%; specificity 98.3%). Recognition did not differ between hypoactive or active status of the patients involved. Conclusion  Delirium is severely under recognized in the ICU by intensivists and ICU nurses in daily care. More attention should be paid to the implementation of a validated delirium-screening instrument during daily ICU care. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

End-of-life decisions in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) – Exploring the experiences of ICU nurses and doctors – A critical literature review

BackgroundEnd-of-life decision making in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), can be emotionally challenging and multifaceted. Doctors and nurses are sometimes placed in a precarious position where they are required to make decisions for patients who may be unable to participate in the decision-making process. There is an increasing frequency of the need for such decisions to be made in ICU, with studies reporting that most ICU deaths are heralded by a decision to withdraw or withhold life-sustaining treatment.ObjectivesThe purpose of this paper is to critically review the literature related to end-of-life decision making among ICU doctors and nurses and focuses on three areas: (1) Who is involved in end-of-life decisions in the ICU?; (2) What challenges are encountered by ICU doctors and nurses when making decisions?; and (3) Are these decisions a source of moral distress for ICU doctors and nurses?Review methodThis review considered both qualitative and quantitative research conducted from January 2006 to March 2014 that report on the experiences of ICU doctors and nurses in end-of-life decision making. Studies with a focus on paediatrics, family/relatives perspectives, advance care directives and euthanasia were excluded. A total of 12 papers were identified for review.ResultsThere were differences reported in the decision making process and collaboration between doctors and nurses (which depended on physician preference or seniority of nurses), with overall accountability assigned to the physician. Role ambiguity, communication issues, indecision on futility of treatment, and the initiation of end-of-life discussions were some of the greatest challenges. The impact of these decisions included decreased job satisfaction, emotional and psychological ‘burnout’.ConclusionsFurther research is warranted to address the need for a more comprehensive, standardised approach to support clinicians (medical and nursing) in end-of-life decision making in the ICU.     

“传-帮-带”培训方法在重症医学科护士听诊技能培训中的应用

目的探讨适合重症医学科护士听诊培训管理的方案。方法2010年10月至2011年10月联系西安市8家市级医院的重症医学科开展护士听诊技能培训，以5种不同方案培训全科1年以上护士。结果“传-帮-带”计划是监护室最优化的护士听诊培训管理项目，成功培养护士听诊诊断能力。知识正确性高，为科室留下了宝贵资料，便于学术交流；有奖励，护士学习热情和主动性高；培训系统全面，实习机会均等，通俗易懂；培训师科室自产，节约科室成本；培养周期短，培训过程不误工；设定考核内容，定期考查；护士学以致用，集体讨论，查缺补漏；记录护理文书，相关护理诊断为医生判断病情提供了参考；汇编科室听诊培训实践指南。传-帮-带培训方式与其他培训方式比较，有知识正确性高、培养周期短、护士积极性高、培训成本低、效果好等优势。结论项目化培训是护士掌握和熟练听诊技能的切实办法，同时护士管理患者的能力在及早发现病情变化方面有了显著提升。     

全国30个省市三级医院重症监护病房医护人员呼吸治疗工作现状的问卷调查

目的 调查我国三级医院重症监护病房(ICU)呼吸治疗的仪器装备、工作内容和完成人等,为规范和发展呼吸治疗工作提供依据.方法 在2006年8月国内召开的三次大规模会议上发放问卷,调查30个省264家三级医院320个ICU的491名医护人员.结果 有创、无创呼吸机数与床位数之比分别为0.52: 1(2 189/4 185)和0.16:1(672/4 185).320个ICU中,超声、喷射式以及定量雾化吸入器的配用率分别为55.9%(179/320)、33.8%(108/320)和12.1%(39/320);机械通气中呼吸机设置、撤机、拔管主要由医师完成的ICU占92.1%、93.1%、83.5%,更换管路、吸痰、雾化、湿化主要由护士完成的ICU占83.7%、93.9%、91.6%、90.2%.491名回答者中撤机前行自主呼吸试验者占40.9%,不知道或从来不做者占26.2%;有创通气时未监测气道开口端温度者占27.1%;对撤机未拔管患者应用气管内持续滴入/泵入盐水湿化者占34.4%;55.6%的人员使用前检测呼吸机;管路更换频率依次为每周1次占48.1%,1～3 d和3～5 d更换1次者为25.0%、14.7%.结论 目前国内三级医院ICU的呼吸机数量较前已大幅增加,但对其他实用装置的应用尚不足;呼吸治疗工作主要由医生和护理人员共同承担,尚缺少专业的呼吸治疗师;机械通气、气道管理和呼吸机管理等呼吸治疗工作差异较大,缺乏统一的规范.     

重症监护病房低年资护士压力源分析及对策的研究

目的调查分析重症监护病房(ICU)低年资护士压力源,探讨有效的应对策略。方法采用问卷调查的方式对该院7个ICU 69名低年资护士进行调查研究。结果 ICU低年资护士主要的压力源包括特殊的工作环境、频繁的中夜班、工作经验不足、福利待遇低、患者及家属的不理解及医生的不认可和不配合等等。应对策略:应从改善工作环境、加强专科业务知识培训、提高福利待遇、处理好各种关系以及合理人员配备等方面针对具体情况进行减压,采取个体化应对。结论 ICU低年资护士压力源是多方面的,应针对具体情况采取个体化措施进行减压。     

Straddling the fence: ICU nurses advocating for hospice care

A key factor in nurses' experiencing moral distress is their feeling of powerlessness to initiate discussions about code status, EOL issues, or patients' preferences. Moreover, nurses encounter physicians who give patients and their families a false picture of recovery or, worse, block EOL discussions from occurring. Since its release in 1995, the landmark study of almost 10,000 patients in the Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments (SUPPORT) reported a widespread gap with physicians' discussions in honest prognosis and EOL issues. Since the SUPPORT report, other studies have validated patients' and their families' preference for realistic discussions of disease trajectory and life expectancy. Unfortunately, the phenomenon of physicians failing to discuss bad news or terminal disease trajectory persists. Moreover, with a burgeoning geriatric population, coupled with advances in medical treatments, a growing segment of chronically ill patients are admitted to the ICU. With these communication shortcomings, it becomes an essential element of practice for the ICU nurse to initiate discussions about healthcare goals, preferences, and choices. The ICU nurse must be integral in fostering those discussions, particularly in cases where the family asks if hospice should be considered. Nurses have a long history of patient advocacy, with both the American Nurses Association and the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses stating that nurses have a duty to educate and promote dialogue about patients' preferences, goals, and EOL issues. With these tenets in the forefront, the ICU nurse is an integral member of the healthcare team, working with patients and their families to distinguish between what can be done and what should be done. Too often, hospice is thought of as a last resort. Rather, it is a model of care that centers on the belief that each of us has the right to die pain free and with dignity, and that our families will receive the necessary support to allow us to do so. Despite the high satisfaction reported by decedents of hospice enrollees, 35% of all hospice patients die within 7 days of enrollment owing to late referrals. An ICU stay presents the perfect opportunity to weave EOL care planning into the fabric of everyday patient care. Clearly, the ICU setting cares for the very sickest patients, and knowing what patients and families desire must take precedence in all treatment decisions. The ICU nurse should be proficient in communication skills, using evidence-based communication related to functional status, performance scales, disease trajectory, and prognosis. ICU nurses recognize that not every patient survives their ICU stay; yet, for those patients who will not survive, every ICU nurse wants their patient to experience a "good death." Hospice and the palliative care are important aspects of our care continuum and should not be ignored until the last days or hours of a patient's life. Recognizing eligibility for hospice and its alignment with patient EOL preferences can result in optimal EOL care.     

有效沟通提高ICU气管插管患者保留人工气道依从性

目的 探讨ICU气管插管的清醒患者保留人工气道的有效沟通方法以提高患者保留人工气道的依从性.方法 对2005年12月-2006年12月ICU收治的164例气管插管患者实施沟通计划:对初次插管患者沟通工作做在前;对插管后入ICU的患者立即进行宣教,对于听不懂医生的话、不识字或无书写能力的患者采取无声交流(应用图画板或词组卡片),对短期应用机械通气、神志清楚的患者采取手势法进行无声交流,对清醒、双手能活动的患者采取用纸和笔写字的方式进行无声交流;置管持续期间及时反馈沟通效果,个别病例重点交班;规范护理常规,检查等操作过程中做好解释工作.结果 气管插管患者自行拔管率实施有效沟通后,从6.6%下降到了1.8%.结论 沟通与宣教能提高气管插管患者对人工气道依从性,使气管插管自行拔管率降低.     

A good death

We describe the cases of two patients discharged home directly from the ICU. Both patients had the strong wish to die at home after being told that there were no therapeutic options. Sometimes discharge is feasible and can mean very much for patients and their family. Taking measures to ensure a “good deathbed” is an obligation for doctors and nursing staff. However, due to the focus on cure this palliative goal is not always pursued.     

依据APACHEII评分配置ICU护理人力的实践及效果评价

目的：探讨急性生理学及慢性健康状况评分系统（APACHEⅡ）在ICU护理人力资源合理配置中的应用价值。方法：将ICU的29名护士作为研究对象,比较应用APACHEⅡ作为人力分配依据前后的各项护理质量和护理服务质量满意度。结果：实施后的各项护理质量检查评分均高于实施前,尤其在基础护理、危重病人护理,消毒隔离、护理文书方面有日月显提高（P〈0．05）;患者、家属、医生对护士的满意度均高于实施前,特别是患者、医生对护士的满意度明显提高（P〈0．05）。结论：应用APACHEⅡ评估ICU护理工作量并配置护理人力资源,能提高护理工作质量和满意度。     

A survey of the oral care practices of intensive care nurses.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care unit (ICU) patients have complex oral care needs. Inadequate oral care may predispose ICU patients to nosocomial infections. Recent initiatives have sought to improve the quality and evidence base of ICU oral care provision. OBJECTIVES: To describe the current priority given to oral care, the knowledge and practice of oral needs assessment and oral care methods, and adherence to the local ICU oral care protocol of ICU nurses working in one hospital. METHOD: Self-administered questionnaire survey of all nurses working in adult ICU ( n = 160 ). RESULTS: Replies were received from 103 (response rate 64.5%). On average, oral care was given a similar priority to other aspects of personal care. 13.5% nurses rated oral care as a low priority. Whilst 98% nurses routinely performed an oral needs assessment, only 26% used a written assessment tool. Toothbrushes were used at least once a day by 85.5% nurses and chlorhexidine products were routinely used by 50.5% nurses. The oral care practices of most nurses matched the local ICU protocol. 23.5% nurses had received no training in oral care and 58% nurses requested initial/further training. CONCLUSIONS: Most oral care methods were appropriate, based on the available evidence. A small minority of nurses gave oral care a low priority and were not using evidence-based oral care methods recommended in the local ICU protocol. Encouraging the general use of oral needs assessment tools is a priority, and further oral care training is required.     

Dynamic assessment of severity of illness in pediatric intensive care

Severity of illness in 293 pediatric ICU patients was assessed by a daily estimate of ICU survival. The probability of nonsurvival was obtained by logistic regression analysis, using physiologic stability index (PSI) values from previous days as time-dependent covariates. Only PSI values from the previous 2 days gave statistically significant predictions of short-term (less than 24 h) outcome. When the prediction model derived from these data was tested prospectively on a separate set of 345 pediatric patients, there was excellent agreement between observed and predicted short-term mortality. Receiver operating characteristic curves for the 345 patients were statistically equivalent to those originally derived for the 293 patients, and this prediction model had significantly (p less than .025) more accuracy than prediction based on admission PSI. These results indicate that this model for daily risk assessment is statistically reliable and objective, as verified against eventual outcome. In the 345 patients, ICU mortality was predicted with 89% sensitivity and 91% specificity. This prediction model may be used to stratify patient groups for clinical studies, or identify very low-risk patients for potential early ICU discharge.     

Burnout in ICU doctors and nurses in mainland China–A national cross-sectional study

PurposeA national cross-sectional study was performed to investigate the severity of burnout and its associated factors among doctors and nurses in ICUs in mainland China.MethodThis is a cross-sectional survey. A total of 2411 ICU doctors and nurses in mainland China were included. Demographic and psychological data were collected via questionnaire. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) was used to evaluate burnout. Differences among regions and departments were analyzed. Multivariate logistic regression was applied to determine the associated factors.ResultsAmong the participants, 1122 (46.54%) were doctors, and 1289 (53.46%) were nurses. A total of 800 doctors (71.3% of all doctors) and 881 nurses (68.3% of all nurses) were deemed to be burnout. People working in the general ICU were most likely to be burnout. Factors associated with burnout included having low frequency of exercise, having comorbidities, working in a high-quality hospital, having more years of work experience, having more night shifts and having fewer paid vacation days.ConclusionsThe burnout rate of ICU doctors and nurses in mainland China is 69.7%. Our study provides baseline data about burnout among Chinese medical staff predating COVID-19, which could help in the analysis and interpretation of burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic.