Correction of physiologically induced global off-resonance effects in dynamic echo-planar and spiral functional imaging.

In functional magnetic resonance imaging, a rapid method such as echo-planar (EPI) or spiral is used to collect a dynamic series of images. These techniques are sensitive to changes in resonance frequency which can arise from respiration and are more significant at high magnetic fields. To decrease the noise from respiration-induced phase and frequency fluctuations, a simple correction of the "dynamic off-resonance in k-space" (DORK) was developed. The correction uses phase information from the center of k-space and a navigator echo and is illustrated with dynamic scans of single-shot and segmented EPI and, for the first time, spiral imaging of the human brain at 7 T. Image noise in the respiratory spectrum was measured with an edge operator. The DORK correction significantly reduced respiration-induced noise (image shift for EPI, blurring for spiral, ghosting for segmented acquisition). While spiral imaging was found to exhibit less noise than EPI before correction, the residual noise after the DORK correction was comparable. The correction is simple to apply and can correct for other sources of frequency drift and fluctuations in dynamic imaging.     

Correction of spatial distortion in EPI due to inhomogeneous static magnetic fields using the reversed gradient method

PURPOSE: To derive and implement a method for correcting spatial distortion caused by in vivo inhomogeneous static magnetic fields in echo-planar imaging (EPI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The reversed gradient method, which was initially devised to correct distortion in images generated by spin-warp MRI, was adapted to correct distortion in EP images. This method provides point-by-point correction of distortion throughout the image. EP images, acquired with a 3 T MRI system, of a phantom and a volunteer's head were used to test the correction method. RESULTS: Good correction was observed in all cases. Spatial distortion in the uncorrected images ranged up to 4 pixels (12 mm) and was corrected successfully. CONCLUSION: The correction was improved by the application of a nonlinear interpolation scheme. The correction requires that two EP images be acquired at each slice position. This increases the acquisition time, but an improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is seen in the corrected image. The local SNR gain decreases with increasing distortion. In many EPI acquisition schemes, multiple images are averaged at each slice position to increase the SNR; in such cases the reversed gradient correction method can be applied with no increase in acquisition duration.     

Geometric distortion correction of high-resolution 3 T diffusion tensor brain images.

Diffusion-weighted images based on echo planar sequences suffer from distortions due to field inhomogeneities from susceptibility differences as well as from eddy currents arising from diffusion gradients. In this paper, a novel approach using nonlinear warping based on optic flow to correct distortions of baseline and diffusion weighted echo planar images (EPI) acquired at 3 T is presented. The distortion correction was estimated by warping the echo planar images to the anatomically correct T2-weighted fast spin echo images (T2-FSE). A global histogram intensity matching of the T2-FSE precedes the base line EPI image distortion correction. A local intensity-matching algorithm was used to transform labeled T2-FSE regions to match intensities of diffusion-weighted EPI images prior to distortion correction of these images. Evaluation was performed using three methods: (i) visual comparison of overlaid contours, (ii) a global mutual information index, and (iii) a local distance measure between homologous points. Visual assessment and the global index demonstrated a decrease in geometrical distortion and the distance measure showed that distortions are reduced to a subvoxel level. In conclusion, the warping algorithm is effective in reducing geometric distortions, enabling generation of anatomically correct diffusion tensor images at 3 T.     

Concomitant gradient field effects in spiral scans.

Maxwell's equations imply that imaging gradients are accompanied by higher order spatially varying fields (concomitant fields) that can cause artifacts in MR imaging. The lowest order concomitant fields depend quadratically on the imaging gradient amplitude and inversely on the static field strength. Time-varying concomitant fields that accompany the readout gradients of spiral scans cause unwanted phase accumulation during the readout, resulting in spatially dependent blurring. Concomitant field phase errors are independent of echo time and, therefore, cannot be detected using Dixon-type field map measurements that are normally used to deblur spiral scan images. Data acquisition methods that reduce concomitant field blurring increase off-resonant spin blurring, and vice versa. Blurring caused by concomitant fields can be removed by variations of image reconstruction methods developed to correct for spatially dependent resonance offsets with nonrectangular k-space trajectories.     

Analysis of flow effects in echo-planar imaging

The effects on the phase of spins moving during echo-planar imaging (EPI) acquisition were studied. Standard single-shot and interleaved multishot blipped EPI acquisitions were considered, assuming either high gradient strength and slew rates or standard gradient strength and slew rates. A spiral k-space trajectory was also considered. Flow components in the section-select and phase- and frequency-encoding directions were analyzed separately. While the effect of flow in the section-select direction is identical to that in a standard two-dimensional Fourier transform (2DFT) acquisition, flow in the phase- or frequency-encoding directions can have substantial effects on the image, different from that in 2DFT imaging. The magnitude of these effects, which include displacement, distortion, and/or ghosting of vascular structures, is analyzed and predicted for a given velocity and direction of flow, the specific acquisition sequence, and the strength and slew rate of the gradients. For example, 50-cm/sec flow along the phase-encoding direction can cause a blurring of 1.25 cm full width at half maximum for blipped EPI with high-strength gradients, assuming a 40-cm field of view and 64 × 64 matrix.     

Real-time autoshimming for echo planar timecourse imaging.

Head motion within an applied magnetic field alters the effective shim within the brain, causing geometric distortions in echo planar imaging (EPI). Even if subtle, change in shim can lead to artifactual signal changes in timecourse EPI acquisitions, which are typically performed for functional MRI (fMRI) or diffusion tensor imaging. Magnetic field maps acquired before and after head motions of clinically realistic magnitude indicate that motion-induced changes in magnetic field may cause translations exceeding 3 mm in the phase-encoding direction of the EPI images. The field maps also demonstrate a trend toward linear variations in shim changes as a function of position within the head, suggesting that a real-time, first-order correction may compensate for motion-induced changes in magnetic field. This article presents a navigator pulse sequence and processing method, termed a "shim NAV," for real-time detection of linear shim changes, and a shim-compensated EPI pulse sequence for dynamic correction of linear shim changes. In vivo and phantom experiments demonstrate the detection accuracy of shim NAVs in the presence of applied gradient shims. Phantom experiments demonstrate reduction of geometric distortion and image artifact using shim-compensated EPI in the presence of applied gradient shims. In vivo experiments with intentional interimage subject motion demonstrate improved alignment of timecourse EPI images when using the shim NAV-detected values to update the shim-compensated EPI acquisition in real time.     

Correction for geometric distortion and N/2 ghosting in EPI by phase labeling for additional coordinate encoding (PLACE).

Echo-planar imaging (EPI) is vulnerable to geometric distortion and N/2 ghosting. These artifacts can be analyzed with an intuitive k-t space tool, and here we propose a simple method for their correction. In a slightly modified additional EPI acquisition, we sample the k-t space with a shift in k(y) by adding a small area to the phase-encoding (PE) gradient. Physically, the added gradient area creates a relative phase ramp across the object and directly encodes the undistorted original y-coordinate of each voxel into a phase difference between two distorted complex images, in a method called "phase labeling for additional coordinate encoding" (PLACE). The phase information is then used to map the mismapped signals back to their original locations for geometric and intensity correction. Smoothing of expanded complex data matrix effectively reduces noise in the differential phase map and allows subpixel warping. The two acquired images can also be averaged to effectively suppress the N/2 ghost. Efficient correction for both artifacts can be achieved with three acquisitions. These acquisitions can also serve as reference scans to correct for geometric distortion and/or N/2 ghost artifacts on all images in a time series. The technique was successfully demonstrated in phantom and animal studies.     

EPI distortion correction from a simultaneously acquired distortion map using TRAIL

PURPOSE: To develop a method for shot-by-shot distortion correction of single-shot echo-planar imaging (EPI) that is capable of correcting each image individually using a distortion measurement performed during acquisition of the image itself. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The recently-introduced method known as two reduced acquisitions interleaved (TRAIL) was extended to measure the distribution of the main magnetic field B0 with each shot. This corresponded to a map of distortion, and allowed distortion to be corrected in the acquired images. RESULTS: Distortion-corrected images were demonstrated in the human brain. The distortion field could be directly visualized using the "stripe" distribution imposed by the TRAIL pulse sequence. This confirmed the success of the correction. Over a time-course measurement of 10 images, variance was reduced by using shot-by-shot distortion correction compared to correction with a constant field map. CONCLUSION: Shot-by-shot distortion correction may be performed for EPI images acquired using an extension of the TRAIL technique, ensuring that the correction reflects the actual distortion pattern and not merely a previously measured, but possibly no longer valid, distortion field. This avoids errors due to changes in the distortion field or misregistration of a previously measured distortion map resulting from subject motion.     

Fast concomitant gradient field and field inhomogeneity correction for spiral cardiac imaging

Non‐Cartesian imaging provides many advantages in terms of flexibility, functionality, and speed. However, a major drawback to these imaging methods is off‐resonance distortion artifacts. These artifacts manifest as blurring in spiral imaging. Common techniques that remove the off‐resonance field inhomogeneity distortion effects are not sufficient, because the high order concomitant gradient fields are nontrivial for common imaging conditions, such as imaging 5 cm off isocenter in an 1.5 T scanner. Previous correction algorithms are either slow or do not take into account the known effects of concomitant gradient fields along with the field inhomogeneities. To ease the correction, the distortion effects are modeled as a non‐stationary convolution problem. In this work, two fast and accurate postgridding algorithms are presented and analyzed. These methods account for both the concomitant field effects and the field inhomogeneities. One algorithm operates in the frequency domain and the other in the spatial domain. To take advantage of their speed and accuracy, the algorithms are applied to a real‐time cardiac study and a high‐resolution cardiac study. Both of the presented algorithms provide for a practical solution to the off‐resonance problem in spiral imaging. Magn Reson Med, 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Artifacts induced by concomitant magnetic field in fast spin-echo imaging

It has been observed that fast spin-echo (FSE) images with a large field of view (>40 cm) in certain directions exhibit unusual ghosting artifacts that cannot be eliminated with existing ghost removal methods. These artifacts have been related to a higher-order magnetic field perturbation (known as the concomitant field, or Maxwell field) concomitant to the linear i-maging gradient, in accordance with the Maxwell equations Several methods have been developed to eliminate or minimize the effects of the concomitant magnetic field by redesigning the FSE pulse sequences. In the slice-selection direction, the gradient waveforms are made symmetrical about the refocusing RF pulses wherever possible. Surrounding the first refocusing pulse, such symmetry cannot be achieved due to the slice-refocusing gradient, which is often combined with the left crusher. In this case, it is shown how crusher gradients can be reshaped to nullify the phase due to the concomitant field. In the phase-encoding direction, the gradient amplitude is reduced and its duration is prolonged. Artifacts due to the readout gradient are eliminated by reshaping the prephasing lobe, while keeping its area fixed. In all the three directions, the gradient waveforms are adjusted so that they have minimal overlap. Selected methods have been implemented on a clinical scanner, and typically reduce the ghost intensities in phantom and human images by a factor of 3.     

Separation of water and fat MR images in a single scan at .35 T using „sandwich”︁ echoes

A method was developed for separation of water and fat MR images in a single scan with correction of static field inhomogeneity. The imaging sequence uses a single radiofrequency (RF) echo that is ?sandwiched”? between two gradient echoes. The gradient echoes are used to determine the B_o distribution and to produce out-of-phase images after phase correction using the field map. An algorithm was developed to unwrap the phase images for quantitating the B_o inhomogeneity. To account for differences in geometric distortion between the RF echo image and the gradient echo images due to the reversal of the read gradients, methods were developed to correct the images before the calculation of the final water and fat images. The proposed technique was implemented at .35 T. Both phantom and human images were acquired using the method. It is shown that water- and fat-separated images can be obtained in a single scan using the ?sandwich”? echoes in the presence of a relatively large B_o inhomogeneity.     

Examination of imaging parameter influence on image distortion in EPI

Echo planar imaging (EPI) is highly sensitive to static magnetic field inhomogeneities. The degree of local image compression and stretching is a function of the static field gradient in the phase-encoding direction. This is caused by the accumulation of a phase shift. Any static field shift will lead to a position shift in the image, and it is the regions with large static fields that are the most difficult to correct. We reduce image distortion by SENSE with an array coil. However, we often use a surface coil because we cannot use an array coil in clinical studies. In this case, image distortion becomes greater, and reduction of distortion is very important. For the purpose of this study, we examined the relation between imaging parameters and image distortion. Image distortion of EPI is unrelated to the following parameters: number of phase encodings, half scan, echo time, and diffusion b-value. However, the following parameters influenced image distortion: FOV, number of frequency encodings, rectangle FOV, and multi-shot imaging. Image distortion of EPI is decided by the area of the phase-encoding gradient and the interval of readout gradients. We hope that many institutions will find these data useful.     

Common SENSE (sensitivity encoding using hardware common to all MR scanners): a new method for single-shot segmented echo planar imaging.

A new method is presented that enables image acquisition to be segmented into two readouts. This is achieved using a new pulse sequence that creates two components of magnetization with different spatial profiles. Each component of the magnetization is measured in one of the readouts. This produces two images with complimentary "sensitivity profiles" and near identical contrast. The images can be acquired with a reduced data matrix that corresponds to shorter periods of data acquisition. The reduced matrix images are then combined to produce a full matrix image using reconstruction methods previously applied to images from multiple RF coils in the sensitivity encoding (SENSE) technique.The most promising application for this technique is in improving the performance of echo planar imaging (EPI) at high field. In this application, common SENSE obtains two segments of data in a single excitation of the magnetization (i.e., two readouts are performed per shot). The combination of these segments in image space avoids the difficulties normally associated with segmented EPI methods, namely, increased ghosting from discontinuities in the k-space data. The main advantages are a reduction in distortion and blurring. Common SENSE is compatible with parallel imaging and partial Fourier methods.     

Propeller EPI in the other direction.

A new propeller EPI pulse sequence with reduced sensitivity to field inhomogeneities is proposed. Image artifacts such as blurring due to Nyquist ghosting and susceptibility gradients are investigated and compared with those obtained in previous propeller EPI studies. The proposed propeller EPI sequence uses a readout that is played out along the short axis of the propeller blade, orthogonal to the readout used in previous propeller methods. In contrast to long-axis readout propeller EPI, this causes the echo spacing between two consecutive phase-encoding (PE) lines to decrease, which in turn increases the k-space velocity in this direction and hence the pseudo-bandwidth. Long- and short-axis propeller EPI, and standard single-shot EPI sequences were compared on phantoms and a healthy volunteer. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) was also performed on the volunteer. Short-axis propeller EPI produced considerably fewer image artifacts compared to the other two sequences. Further, the oblique blades for the long-axis propeller EPI were also prone to one order of magnitude higher residual ghosting than the proposed short-axis propeller EPI.     

Fast conjugate phase image reconstruction based on a Chebyshev approximation to correct for B0 field inhomogeneity and concomitant gradients

Off‐resonance effects can cause image blurring in spiral scanning and various forms of image degradation in other MRI methods. Off‐resonance effects can be caused by both B0 inhomogeneity and concomitant gradient fields. Previously developed off‐resonance correction methods focus on the correction of a single source of off‐resonance. This work introduces a computationally efficient method of correcting for B0 inhomogeneity and concomitant gradients simultaneously. The method is a fast alternative to conjugate phase reconstruction, with the off‐resonance phase term approximated by Chebyshev polynomials. The proposed algorithm is well suited for semiautomatic off‐resonance correction, which works well even with an inaccurate or low‐resolution field map. The proposed algorithm is demonstrated using phantom and in vivo data sets acquired by spiral scanning. Semiautomatic off‐resonance correction alone is shown to provide a moderate amount of correction for concomitant gradient field effects, in addition to B0 imhomogeneity effects. However, better correction is provided by the proposed combined method. The best results were produced using the semiautomatic version of the proposed combined method. Magn Reson Med 60:1104–1111, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Phase labeling using sensitivity encoding (PLUS): Data acquisition and image reconstruction for geometric distortion correction in EPI

Geometric distortion caused by magnetic field inhomogeneity is generally an inevitable tradeoff for fast MRI acquisitions using echo‐planar imaging. Most of the existing distortion‐correction techniques require separate scans for field maps in order to correct the distortion contained in a measurement. A drawback of these current techniques is that the field map scans and the measurement can capture different patient positions, which invalidates the stationary condition. A new method was developed in this work to correct geometric distortion by using local phase shifts derived directly from the measurement itself, without the need of extra field map scans. This self‐sufficient method takes advantage of parallel imaging and k‐space trajectory modification to produce multiple images from a single acquisition. The measurement is also used to derive sensitivity maps for parallel imaging reconstruction. The derived phase shifts are retrospectively applied to the measurement for correction of geometric distortion in the measurement itself. The proposed method was successfully demonstrated using experimental data from a phantom and a human brain. Magn Reson Med, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Correction of off resonance-related distortion in echo-planar imaging using EPI-based field maps

We present, here, a simple method for measurement and correction of off-resonance related geometric distortion in echo-planar imaging (EP1). This method uses high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) EPI-based field maps, rapidly acquired using a series of gradient recalled images collected across a range of TE values. This field map is distorted in the same manner as the EPI images to be unwarped, providing a direct look-up table for the correct location of each pixel of data. This method adds very little scan time and is robust and easy to implement.     

Referenceless interleaved echo-planar imaging.

Interleaved echo-planar imaging (EPI) is an ultrafast imaging technique important for applications that require high time resolution or short total acquisition times. Unfortunately, EPI is prone to significant ghosting artifacts, resulting primarily from system time delays that cause data matrix misregistration. In this work, it is shown mathematically and experimentally that system time delays are orientation dependent, resulting from anisotropic physical gradient delays. This analysis characterizes the behavior of time delays in oblique coordinates, and a new ghosting artifact caused by anisotropic delays is described. "Compensation blips" are proposed for time delay correction. These blips are shown to remove the effects of anisotropic gradient delays, eliminating the need for repeated reference scans and postprocessing corrections. Examples of phantom and in vivo images are shown.     

Effects of gradient anisotropy in MRI

A gradient system is anisotropic if the impulse responses of at least two of the gradient channels, x, y, or z, differ from each other. Such an undesired condition may arise, for example, from differences between the gradient channels with respect to eddy currents or from unbalanced time delays in the electronic components. Depending on the degree of anisotropy, the actual gradient then deviates from the nominal, desired gradient under certain oblique orientations during the transient periods of gradient switching. The adverse consequence is degradation of image quality, such as distortion, ghosting, and blurring. In this paper, a theoretical analysis is given of the basic effects. Furthermore, the implications for the MRI process and possible correction methods are described. The effects of anisotropy are shown experimentally for echo-planar imaging and two-dimensional selective RF excitation with spiral gradient pulses.