Identification of polymorphisms and balancing selection in the male infertility candidate gene, ornithine decarboxylase antizyme 3

Background  

The antizyme family is a group of small proteins that play a role in cell growth and division by regulating the biosynthesis of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, spermine). Antizymes regulate polyamine levels primarily through binding ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), an enzyme key to polyamine production, and targeting ODC for destruction by the 26S proteosome. Ornithine decarboxylase antizyme 3 (OAZ3) is a testis-specific antizyme paralog and the only antizyme expressed in the mid to late stages of spermatogenesis.     

In vivo effects of alpha-DL-difluoromethylornithine on the metabolism and morphology of Trypanosoma brucei brucei

The EATRO 110 isolate of Trypanosoma brucei brucei was grown in rats for 60 h and the animals treated with the ornithine decarboxylase inhibitor alpha-DL-difluoromethylornithine 12 h or 36 h prior to sacrifice. Control untreated animals died 72-80 h after infection. Treated parasites were shorter and broader than the predominantly long slender forms found in untreated controls and many had two or more nuclei and kinetoplasts. Trypanosomes were purified from blood and examined for disruption of polyamine metabolism. ODC activity decreased by more than 99% after 12 h treatment and putrescine and spermidine levels also decreased dramatically. Spermine, not normally present in control cells, increased to detectable, low levels (less than 1 nmol mg-1 protein) after 36 h treatment. alpha-DL-Difluoromethylornithine-treated cells were unable to synthesize putrescine from [3H]ornithine but were able to convert [3H]putrescine + methionine to spermidine. 12-h treated parasites responded to polyamine depletion by assimilating radiolabeled polyamines in vitro at 2- to 4-times the rate of untreated cells. The metabolism of S-adenosylmethionine was also altered in treated parasites: decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine increased more than 1000-fold over untreated cells while S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase activity, associated with the formation of spermidine and spermine in other eukaryotes, paradoxically declined in treated cells. Synthesis of macromolecules was perturbed in treated parasites: rates of DNA and RNA synthesis declined 50-100%, while protein synthesis increased up to 4-fold in 36-h treated cells. alpha-DL-Difluoromethylornithine treatment progressively limits the parasites' ability to synthesize nucleic acids and blocks cytokinesis while inducing morphological changes resembling long slender leads to short stumpy transformation.     

Effects of luminal stimuli on polyamine metabolism in the small intestine of the rat: the role of enteric nerves

The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent polyamine metabolism in the small intestine of the rat is controlled by the enteric nervous system. Polyamine metabolism was followed by measuring the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and in some instances also the content of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine and spermine). ODC activity in the intestine was increased when intraluminal pressure was increased and 3 h after placing cholera toxin in the intestinal lumen. Cholera toxin also increased the tissue putrescine content. Atropine or hexamethonium given i.v. did not influence the evoked changes of ODC activity. The pressure induced changes were not decreased by placing lidocaine on the serosal surface. On the other hand, the ODC activity of control segments were decreased by hexamethonium or atropine. The presence of glucose in the intestinal perfusate did not augment tissue ODC activity, neither did the heat stable enterotoxin from Escherichia coli (STa). It is concluded that the effect on polyamine metabolism evoked by luminal pressure or cholera toxin seems not to be mediated via nerves, while nerves seem to influence ODC activity during control conditions. The experiments with enterotoxins suggest that cAMP is the intracellular second messenger controlling intestinal ODC activity.     

Delayed neuronal damage related to microglia proliferation after mild spinal cord compression injury

In order to investigate the mechanism of delayed progressive or secondary neuronal damage after the spinal cord injury, we developed a mild-compression injury model in the rat thoracic spinal cord. Our compression device consists of a soft silicone point of contact to the dura, in order to prevent violent injury that may cause axonal tears or hemorrhages in the spinal cord. Since rats often assume a 'standing' posture, i.e. raising head with lifting their fore-limbs, damage to the thoracic spinal cord was evaluated by measuring the frequency of 'standing', which effectively indicates hind limb function. Twenty-four hours after compression by a 20 g weight for 10 or 20 min, the standing frequency of the injured rat was almost the same as that of sham animals that underwent laminectomy without compression. However, the standing frequency decreased with time; the frequency of standing at 72 h was approximately 30-50% that of sham animals. In the compressed spinal cord tissue, microglial cells, detected by lectin staining, proliferated with time. An enormous amount of microglia was observed at 48 and 72 h after compression, although only a small amount of cells were positive to lectin staining at 24 h after the compression. These results suggest that our mild-compression spinal cord injury model showed late-onset or delayed neuronal damage that may be related to pathological microglia proliferation.     

Effects of dantrolene on apoptosis and immunohistochemical expression of NeuN in the spinal cord after traumatic injury in rats

Dantrolene has been shown to be neuroprotective by reducing neuronal apoptosis after brain injury in several animal models of neurological disorders. In this study, we investigated the effects of dantrolene on experimental spinal cord injury (SCI). Forty-six male Wistar rats were laminectomized at T13 and divided in six groups: GI (n = 7) underwent SCI with placebo and was euthanized after 32 h; GII (n = 7) underwent laminectomy alone with placebo and was euthanized after 32 h; GIII (n = 8) underwent SCI with dantrolene and was euthanized after 32 h; GIV (n = 8) underwent SCI with placebo and was euthanized after 8 days; GV (n = 8) underwent laminectomy alone with placebo and was euthanized after 8 days; and GVI (n = 8) underwent SCI with dantrolene and was euthanized after 8 days. A compressive trauma was performed to induce SCI. After euthanasia, the spinal cord was evaluated using light microscopy, TUNEL staining and immunochemistry with anti-Caspase-3 and anti-NeuN. Animals treated with dantrolene showed a smaller number of TUNEL-positive and caspase-3-positive cells and a larger number of NeuN-positive neurons, both at 32 h and 8 days (P ≤ 0.05). These results showed that dantrolene protects spinal cord tissue after traumatic SCI by decreasing apoptotic cell death.     

鸟氨酸脱羧酶/多胺系统在大鼠缺血预适应心肌保护中的作用

目的：探讨鸟氨酸脱羧酶（ODC）/多胺系统在缺血预适应（IPC）心肌保护中的作用。方法:应用离体灌流大鼠心脏复制模拟心肌缺血/再灌注模型。心脏随机分为6组：对照组 (control)、缺血/再灌注组 (IR)、弱缺血预适应组 (IPCw)、强缺血预适应组 (IPCs)、IPCw+多胺抑制剂组 (DF-EG-IPCw)和IPCs+多胺抑制剂组(DF-EG-IPCs)。免疫印迹法定量分析多胺合成限速酶鸟氨酸脱羧酶 (ODC)的表达;高效液相色谱测定心肌组织中的多胺（腐胺、精脒、精胺）含量;Powerlab多导生理记录系统记录心脏功能;氯化三苯基四氮唑 (TTC) 染色检测心肌梗死面积;TUNEL方法检测细胞凋亡率,比较其中的差异性。结果:（1）与对照组比,IR组ODC表达下调,腐胺含量增加,精胺含量减少,总多胺池减少（P<0.05）,此时心功能下降（LVDP、HR、CF均低于对照组,P<0.05）,心肌梗死面积及心肌细胞凋亡率增加（P<0.05）;（2）与IR组比,弱及强缺血预处理组（IPCw、IPCs）心肌ODC表达上调,腐胺含量减少,精胺含量增加,总多胺池增加（P<0.05或P<0.01）,此时大鼠心功能有明显改善（LVDP、HR、CF与IR组比,P<0.05）,心肌梗死面积及心肌细胞凋亡率均明显降低（P<0.01）;（3）给予多胺抑制剂后,心肌ODC表达,腐胺、精脒、精胺及总多胺池含量均明显降低（DF-EG-IPCw组 vs IPCw组;DF-EG-IPCs组vs IPCs组,P<0.05或P<0.01）,心功能明显下降（P<0.05）,心肌梗死面积及细胞凋亡率均明显增加（P<0.05）。结论:缺血预适应能明显上调大鼠心肌ODC/多胺系统,减轻缺血/再灌注心肌损伤;多胺合成代谢抑制剂取消了预适应介导的心功能改善、缩小心肌梗死面积及减少心肌细胞凋亡的作用,提示ODC/多胺系统可能参与了缺血预适应介导的心肌保护作用。     

Regulation of Polyamine Synthesis and Transport by Fibroblast Growth Factor in Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells

Abstract

Basic-FGF (FGF2) is implicated as a regulator of smooth muscle cell proliferation that develops after arterial injury. Polyamines are essential for cell growth and differentiation and may mediate some of the FGF2-elicited responses. To examine this possibility, the effect of FGF2 on polyamine synthesis and uptake was tested on rat arterial smooth muscle cells. Exposure of cells to FGF2 for 24 and 48 h resulted in increased intracellular polyamine content. Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity increased in FGF2-treated cells after 6 h of treatment, whereas no increases were detected in ODC mRNA steady-state levels. Basic-FGF increased maximal polyamine transport rate without changes in Km. Treatment with actinomycin D decreased polyamine transport. The effect of cyclohexamide on polyamine uptake was dose dependent. These studies indicate that treatment of vascular smooth muscle cells with FGF2 results in increases in intracellular polyamine content, polyamine synthetic activity, and polyamine transport.     

Subacute combined degeneration and induction of ornithine decarboxylase in spinal cords of totally gastrectomized rats

Totally gastrectomized rats have been used to induce a spongy demyelination in the white matter of the spinal cord (SC) which is strongly reminiscent of that observed in subacute combined degeneration of human SC. Totally gastrectomized rats are deprived of intrinsic factor and thereafter become deficient in cobalamin. Morphologically, the spongy demyelination of the white matter of the rat SC, was evident 2 months after total gastrectomy. Biochemically, we investigated the hypothesis that polyamine biosynthesis might be deranged in the rat SC with experimental subacute combined degeneration, since polyamines are well known to be bound to myelin in the mammalian central nervous system. We measured the levels of both the polyamine biosynthetic decarboxylases, L-ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and S-adenosyl-L-methionine decarboxylase, the key points in the polyamine biosynthetic pathway, in these SC. There was a sharp increase in ODC activity in SC 2 months after total gastrectomy, without significant changes in S-adenosyl-L-methionine decarboxylase activity. The increase in ODC activity seems to be organ-specific and was not due to a proliferation of neuroglial cells. Interestingly enough, the same morphologic and biochemical features found in SC of 2-month-totally-gastrectomized rats were present also in SC of newborn rats, which indeed showed incomplete myelination, vacuolated appearance, and an ODC activity level higher than that of adult SC. Therefore, total gastrectomy seems to induce a type of regression in the SC of totally gastrectomized rats toward neonatal life, at least in terms of the degree of myelination and of ODC activity level. Biochemically, no changes in ODC activity were observed in SC of rats fed a cobalamin-deficient diet for 3 months. Morphologically, only a proliferation of neuroglial cells with a moderate demyelination was observed in SC of these rats maintained on a cobalamin-deficient diet for 3 months.     

Polyamine biosynthesis in trichomonads

Trichomonas vaginalis, Tritrichomonas foetus and Trichomitus batrachorum grown in modified Diamond's medium all had high concentrations of putrescine and lower concentrations of spermidine and spermine. Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC; EC 4.1.1.17) was detectable in all three species although at significantly different levels. Trichomonas vaginalis had the highest activity (typically around 1.85 nmol min-1 (mg protein)-1), Trichomitus batrachorum the lowest (0.11 nmol min-1 (mg protein)-1). The Trichomonas vaginalis ODC had an apparent Mr of 230 000 and was severely inhibited by alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO). S-Adenosyl-methionine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.50) could not be detected in T. batrachorum but was present in the other two species. Arginine decarboxylase was apparently absent from all three. All three trichomonad species were able to accumulate spermidine and putrescine from the medium. When T. vaginalis was grown in the presence of DFMO (4 mM), which had little effect on parasite growth, ODC activity was reduced by over 99% and the polyamine content was altered; putrescine concentrations were decreased, those of spermidine and spermine remained the same or were raised. DFMO-treated cells accumulated more exogenous putrescine than untreated control cells. The results suggest that the lack of effect of DFMO on T. vaginalis in culture was due to the parasite being able to accumulate polyamines from the growth medium. It appears, therefore, that testing DFMO and similar compounds in axenic trichomonad cultures may well not give a true indication of their effectiveness in vivo where sources of exogenous polyamines may not be available.     

Alpha-difluoromethylornithine resistance in Leishmania donovani is associated with increased ornithine decarboxylase activity

The promastigote form of Leishmania donovani is sensitive to growth inhibition by DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), an inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), the first enzyme of the polyamine biosynthetic pathway, with an EC50 value of approximately 30 microM. Exposure of a wild type (DI700) cell population to gradually increasing concentrations of DFMO resulted in the selection of a strain of Leishmania, DFMO-10, which was capable of proliferating in 10 mM DFMO. DFMO-10 cells possessed an EC50 value for DFMO greater than 4 mM, and were cross-resistant to alpha-methylornithine, alpha-monofluoromethyl-3,4-dehydroornithine methyl ester, and delta-methyl-acetylenic putrescine, three other inhibitors of ODC activity. DI700 and DFMO-10 cells accumulated and/or transported [3H]DFMO and a spectrum of basic, neutral, and acidic amino acids at comparative rates. However, the DFMO-resistant Leishmania, if suspended in culture medium in the absence of DFMO for several days, expressed up to 15-fold greater levels of ODC activity than did wild-type cells. The overexpressed ODC in mutant cells appeared kinetically normal, since the ODC activities from DI700 and DFMO-10 cells possessed similar apparent Km values for ornithine and were equally sensitive to inactivation by DFMO. Incubation of extracts of DFMO-10 cells, but not of wild-type parental cells, with [3H]DFMO for 1 h resulted in the labeling of a polypeptide, presumably ODC, which migrated with a molecular weight of 76,000 +/- 4000 on SDS-gel electrophoretograms. As a consequence of the elevated ODC activities, the levels of putrescine in mutant cells released from DFMO exposure were also elevated by about 15-fold over those of wild-type cells, although spermidine levels in DI700 and DFMO-10 cells were similar. In the absence of prolonged selective pressure, the resistance to DFMO, the ODC activity, and the putrescine levels of DFMO-10 cells all returned to those of wild type cells, indicating that the mutant phenotype of DFMO-selected L. donovani was unstable.     

Polyamine metabolism in rat parotid gland after duct ligation

Parotid ducts were ligated unilaterally in rats for periods from 6 h to 5 months. A slight increase in gland weight was observed during the first 24 h; thereafter, the weight gradually fell, being less than 50% of controls at 5 months. The activity of the putrescine-forming enzyme, ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), increased with peak values by 3 days and 3 weeks. However, the putrescine content had already reached its highest value by 24 h. A notably marked reduction of spermidine and spermine contents was observed by 1 day after ligation and throughout the whole time of observation. The results suggest that an inverse polyamine metabolism occurred, that is, spermine converts to spermidine which in turn converts to putrescine.     

Embryonic intermediate filament,nestin, expression following traumatic spinal cord injury in adult rats

Precursor cells in the ependyma of the lateral ventricles of adult mammalian brain have been reported in brain, and also in the spinal cord. The present study used antibody to the intermediate filament protein (nestin) as an immunohistochemical marker for neural stem cells and precursor cells in a rat model of spinal cord trauma. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n=25) had a laminectomy at Thll-Thl2, and spinal cord contusion was created by compression with 30 g of force for 10 min. The rats were killed at 24 h, 1 week and 4 weeks after injury, and four levels of the spinal cord were examined: 5 mm and 10 mm, both rostral and caudal region to the injury center. Time- and region-dependent alterations of nestin immunoreactivity were analyzed. Revealed at 24 h post-injury, 5 mm rostral and caudal to the lesions, nestin expression was observed in ependymal cells and around the hemorrhagic and necrotic lesion located in dorsal spinal cord, peaking at 1 week after injury. Moreover, nestin expression was also observed in the white matter of ventral spinal cord, extending into arborizing processes centripetally from the pial surface toward the central canal. At 4 weeks after injury, nestin expression in ependyma decreased 10 mm from the injury site. But nestin expression in white matter increased dramatically with a 100-fold increase in nestin originating from the pial surface, and extension now to all the white matter. The latter was accompanied by glial fibrillary acidic protein positivity into very long arborizing processes, morphologically compatible with radial glia. The findings suggest two possible sources of precursor cells in adult mammalian spinal cord; ependyma of the central canal and subpial astrocytes. Subpial astrocytes may be associated with neural repair and regeneration after spinal cord injury.     

脊髓损伤继发骨质疏松大鼠椎骨的力学变化

背景：脊髓损伤造成下肢肌肉萎缩,久之引起骨质疏松,为了解脊髓损伤继发骨质疏松的发病机制,有必要对脊髓损伤继发骨质疏松动物模型骨进行生物力学性质研究。 目的：观察脊髓损伤所导致骨的力学变化。 方法：选用Wistar雄性大鼠66只,随机分为空白组和模型组。模型组大鼠于T10椎体水平剪开椎板损伤脊髓。损伤后11周解剖取大鼠L1~4椎骨,进行压缩实验、取L1~4椎骨进行扭转、冲击实验。 结果与结论：模型组压缩实验最大载荷、最大应力、最大应变,扭转实验最大转矩、最大扭转角、最大切应力,冲击实验最大冲击功、最大冲击韧性均小于空白组(P < 0.05),说明脊髓损伤继发大鼠骨质疏松后大鼠椎骨压缩、扭转、冲击力学特性发生改变。     

Evidence for a role of neosynthetized putrescine in the increase of glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactivity induced by a mechanical lesion in the rat brain

The effect of alpha-difluoromethylornithine (alpha-DFMO), an irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) the rate limiting enzyme of polyamine biosynthesis, was studied on the astroglial reaction in a model of mechanical brain injury. alpha-DFMO markedly decreased the astroglial activation induced by the microdialysis probe implantation in the striatum of the male rat, as studied by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunocytochemistry. This response was restored by putrescine (20 nmol/ml) administered via the microdialysis probe. These results suggest that the astroglial reaction and the polyamine biosynthesis activation induced by a localized mechanical lesion are causally linked phenomena.     

Effects of neurotoxic and mechanical lesions of the mesostriatal dopamine pathway on striatal polyamine levels in the rat: modulation by chronic ganglioside GM1 treatment

In male rats, partial hemitransections but not 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced lesions of the mesostriatal dopamine (DA) pathway produce after 7 days a marked and a modest increase of striatal putrescine and spermidine levels, respectively, on the lesioned side. Following chronic ganglioside GM1 treatment of partially hemitransected rats, an increase of striatal polyamine levels was observed also on the intact side. It is suggested that retrograde cell body changes produced by hemitransection may induce striatal ornithine decarboxylase activity and in this way increase striatal putrescine levels, favoring regenerative mechanisms. The increase of striatal polyamine levels by GM1 treatment on the intact side of both 6-OHDA and mechanically lesioned rats compared with intact unoperated rats may also reflect an increased synthesis of striatal polyamines.     

Inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis in Crithidia fasciculata by D,L-alpha-difluoromethylornithine and D,L-alpha-difluoromethylarginine.

Using Crithidia fasciculata as a model organism for Trypanosoma cruzi, we have examined the effects of D,L-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and D,L-alpha-difluoromethylarginine (DFMA) on growth and polyamine synthesis. In a defined, polyamine-free medium growth was markedly inhibited by DFMO (94% at 50 mM; IC50 = 37 mM) and to a lesser extent by DFMA (65% at 50 mM). Addition of putrescine, but not agmatine, reverses inhibition of growth, suggesting that the site of inhibition is ornithine decarboxylase (ODC). Consistent with this conclusion, DFMO or DFMA results in a complete loss of putrescine and significant reductions in intracellular spermidine, glutathionylspermidine and N1,N8-bis(glutathionyl)spermidine (trypanothione). In addition, significant concentrations of DFMO (0.8 mM) were present in DFMA-treated cells. However, in contrast to other organisms, conversion of DFMA to DFMO is probably not catalysed by arginase. Substantial ornithine decarboxylase activity (63.1 pmol min-1 mg-1; ODC) was observed in control cells, sufficient to account for polyamine synthesis during growth. In addition, a trace arginine decarboxylase (ADC) activity (1.19 pmol min-1 mg-1) was found. Evidence is presented showing that the apparent ADC activity is actually due to the concerted action of arginase (1.5 nmol min-1 mg-1) and ODC. Thus DFMA appears to inhibit growth of C. fasciculata via conversion to DFMO and subsequent inhibition of ODC.     

The tripeptide phenylalanine-(D) glutamate-(D) glycine modulates leukocyte infiltration and oxidative damage in rat injured spinal cord

The tripeptide, phenylalanine-glutamate-glycine (FEG) and its d-isomeric form phenylalanine-(D) glutamate-(D) glycine (feG), derived from submandibular gland peptide-T, significantly reduce the allergic inflammatory response and leukocyte trafficking and neutrophil migration into intestine, heart and lungs. Due to these actions, we hypothesized that feG would attenuate the early inflammatory response to spinal cord injury, reduce free radical production and improve neurological outcomes, like other leukocyte-limiting strategies we have used previously. We tested this using a clip compression model of spinal cord injury in rats. Following spinal cord injury at the 4th thoracic cord segment, we quantified leukocyte infiltration, free radical formation and oxidative damage at the lesion site after feG or control peptide phenylalanine-(D) aspartate-(D) glycine treatment. In rats treated with feG at 2 and 12 h, or 6 and 12 h after spinal cord injury, mean myeloperoxidase activity and ED-1 expression were significantly lower ( approximately 40%) than in controls at 24 h. Free radical formation generated in injured spinal cord was detected using 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin-diacetate as a fluorescent probe. Free radical production in the injured cord increased significantly after spinal cord injury and feG treatment significantly reduced this free radical production. Oxidative enzymes, lipid peroxidation and cell death were also significantly ( approximately 40%), gp91 ( approximately 30%), thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels ( approximately 35%), 4-hydroxynonenal-bound protein ( approximately 35%) and caspase-3 ( approximately 32%). Early administration of feG decreases infiltration of inflammatory cells into the injured spinal cord and intraspinal free radical formation, thereby reducing oxidative damage and secondary cell death after spinal cord injury.