Potentiation of radiation-induced cell killing by histone deacetylase inhibitor

HDAC inhibitor has been focused as a molecular target agent for cancer treatment because of unique pharmacological activity. HDAC inhibitors induce cancer cells to undergo growth arrest, differentiation or induce apoptosis in vitro, and also inhibit the growth of transplanted tumors in vivo, but the enhancement effect or interaction of HDAC inhibitors with other chemotherapeutic agents or radiation has not yet been fully investigated. Biade et al examined the effect of trichostatin A (TSA), and reported synergistic enhancement of radiosensitivity in human cancer cell lines. We also confirmed the similar results in vitro by using TSA in combination with radiation. The main purpose of this paper is to review the current status of HDAC inhibitor in clinical use, and evaluate the potential possibility for the potentiation of radiation-induced cell killing including the results of our research.     

组蛋白变构及其在恶性血液病治疗中的应用

组蛋白变构是参与血液系统恶性肿瘤发生和发展的重要机制,组蛋白赖氨酸残基的乙酰化和染色质的打开与基因的活化有关,而赖氨酸残基的甲基化可以导致染色质表达的活化或抑制,其中最主要的是组蛋白脱乙酰化酶（HDAC）介导的组蛋白去乙酰化。HDAC抑制剂分为4类：短链脂肪酸、异羟肟酸、环状四肽和苯酰胺类,它们的抑制机制各不相同。多种临床Ⅰ／Ⅱ期实验证明这些抑制剂对于包括白血病在内的恶性血液病具有明显的治疗效果且低毒。HDAC抑制剂与DNA去甲基化药物联用可以使转化细胞DNA甲基化降低、组蛋白乙酰化升高和抑癌基因恢复表达。作为表观遗传学重要组成的组蛋白乙酰化以及相应的HDAC抑制剂治疗对于血液系统恶性肿瘤的治疗具有乐观前景。本文对组蛋白变构的机制、HDAC抑制剂及其在血液系统恶性肿瘤治疗中的应用进展作一综述。     

KD5170, a novel mercaptoketone-based histone deacetylase inhibitor that exhibits broad spectrum antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have garnered significant attention as cancer drugs. These therapeutic agents have recently been clinically validated with the market approval of vorinostat (SAHA, Zolinza) for treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Like vorinostat, most of the small-molecule HDAC inhibitors in clinical development are hydroxamic acids, whose inhibitory activity stems from their ability to coordinate the catalytic Zn2+ in the active site of HDACs. We sought to identify novel, nonhydroxamate-based HDAC inhibitors with potentially distinct pharmaceutical properties via an ultra-high throughput small molecule biochemical screen against the HDAC activity in a HeLa cell nuclear extract. An alpha-mercaptoketone series was identified and chemically optimized. The lead compound, KD5170, exhibits HDAC inhibitory activity with an IC50 of 0.045 micromol/L in the screening biochemical assay and an EC50 of 0.025 micromol/L in HeLa cell-based assays that monitor histone H3 acetylation. KD5170 also exhibits broad spectrum classes I and II HDAC inhibition in assays using purified recombinant human isoforms. KD5170 shows significant antiproliferative activity against a variety of human tumor cell lines, including the NCI-60 panel. Significant tumor growth inhibition was observed after p.o. dosing in human HCT-116 (colorectal cancer), NCI-H460 (non-small cell lung carcinoma), and PC-3 (prostate cancer) s.c. xenografts in nude mice. In addition, a significant increase in antitumor activity and time to end-point occurred when KD5170 was combined with docetaxel in xenografts of the PC-3 prostate cancer cell line. The biological and pharmaceutical profile of KD5170 supports its continued preclinical and clinical development as a broad spectrum anticancer agent.     

Isothiazolones as inhibitors of PCAF and p300 histone acetyltransferase activity

Histone acetylation plays an important role in regulating the chromatin structure and is tightly regulated by two classes of enzyme, histone acetyltransferases (HAT) and histone deacetylases (HDAC). Deregulated HAT and HDAC activity plays a role in the development of a range of cancers. Consequently, inhibitors of these enzymes have potential as anticancer agents. Several HDAC inhibitors have been described; however, few inhibitors of HATs have been disclosed. Following a FlashPlate high-throughput screen, we identified a series of isothiazolone-based HAT inhibitors. Thirty-five N-substituted analogues inhibited both p300/cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein-binding protein-associated factor (PCAF) and p300 (1 to >50 micromol/L, respectively) and the growth of a panel of human tumor cell lines (50% growth inhibition, 0.8 to >50 micromol/L). CCT077791 and CCT077792 decreased cellular acetylation in a time-dependent manner (2-48 hours of exposure) and a concentration-dependent manner (one to five times, 72 hours, 50% growth inhibition) in HCT116 and HT29 human colon tumor cell lines. CCT077791 reduced total acetylation of histones H3 and H4, levels of specific acetylated lysine marks, and acetylation of alpha-tubulin. Four and 24 hours of exposure to the compounds produced the same extent of growth inhibition as 72 hours of continuous exposure, suggesting that growth arrest was an early event. Chemical reactivity of these compounds, as measured by covalent protein binding and loss of HAT inhibition in the presence of DTT, indicated that reaction with thiol groups might be important in their mechanism of action. As one of the first series of small-molecule inhibitors of HAT activity, further analogue synthesis is being pursued to examine the potential scope for reducing chemical reactivity while maintaining HAT inhibition.     

Lysine Acetylation in Sexual Stage Malaria Parasites Is a Target for Antimalarial Small Molecules

Therapies to prevent transmission of malaria parasites to the mosquito vector are a vital part of the global malaria elimination agenda. Primaquine is currently the only drug with such activity; however, its use is limited by side effects. The development of transmission-blocking strategies requires an understanding of sexual stage malaria parasite (gametocyte) biology and the identification of new drug leads. Lysine acetylation is an important posttranslational modification involved in regulating eukaryotic gene expression and other essential processes. Interfering with this process with histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors is a validated strategy for cancer and other diseases, including asexual stage malaria parasites. Here we confirm the expression of at least one HDAC protein in Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes and show that histone and nonhistone protein acetylation occurs in this life cycle stage. The activity of the canonical HDAC inhibitors trichostatin A (TSA) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA; Vorinostat) and a panel of novel HDAC inhibitors on early/late-stage gametocytes and on gamete formation was examined. Several compounds displayed early/late-stage gametocytocidal activity, with TSA being the most potent (50% inhibitory concentration, 70 to 90 nM). In contrast, no inhibitory activity was observed in P. falciparum gametocyte exflagellation experiments. Gametocytocidal HDAC inhibitors caused hyperacetylation of gametocyte histones, consistent with a mode of action targeting HDAC activity. Our data identify HDAC inhibitors as being among a limited number of compounds that target both asexual and sexual stage malaria parasites, making them a potential new starting point for gametocytocidal drug leads and valuable tools for dissecting gametocyte biology.     

丙戊酸联合替西罗莫司抑制弥漫大B细胞淋巴瘤细胞生长的机制研究

本研究探讨联合应用短链脂肪酸类去乙酰化酶（HDAC）抑制剂丙戊酸（VPA）和哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白（mTOR）抑制剂替西罗莫司（TEM）抑制弥漫大B淋巴瘤细胞生长的机制。应用MTr法检测细胞增殖抑制率,瑞氏染色检测细胞形态学改变,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡、周期及自噬相关蛋白,透射电子显微镜检测细胞超微结构变化,蛋白质印迹法检测相关蛋白水平。结果表明,单用VPA和TEM均可抑制淋巴瘤细胞增殖,两药合用抑制作用更为显著;流式细胞术检测结果显示,两药联合后可阻断细胞周期,引起自噬相关蛋白LC3表达增高;电子显微镜检测进一步证实,经VPA及TEM处理后的细胞出现自噬体和自噬溶酶体,两药合用时自噬现象更为显著;蛋白质免疫印迹证实,自噬通路相关蛋白的表达发生改变;经VPA处理后HDACl和HDAC3表达下调,组蛋白乙酰化水平升高,表明VPA可通过表观遗传学调控影响淋巴瘤细胞增殖、促进其自噬。结论：VPA和TEM在阻断淋巴瘤细胞增殖、促进细胞自噬方面具有协同效应,为药物联合治疗提供了新的理论基础,具有良好的临床应用前景。     

Peptidomimetic Src/Pretubulin Inhibitor KX-01 Alone and in Combination with Paclitaxel Suppresses Growth, Metastasis in Human ER/PR/HER2-Negative Tumor Xenografts

Src kinase is elevated in breast tumors that are ER/PR negative and do not overexpress HER2, but clinical trials with Src inhibitors have shown little activity. The present study evaluated preclinical efficacy of a novel peptidomimetic compound, KX-01 (KX2-391), that exhibits dual action as an Src and pretubulin inhibitor. KX-01 was evaluated as a single-agent and in combination with paclitaxel in MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-157, and MDA-MB-468 human ER/PR/HER2-negative breast cancer cells. Treatments were evaluated by growth/apoptosis, isobologram analysis, migration/invasion assays, tumor xenograft volume, metastasis, and measurement of Src, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), microtubules, Ki67, and microvessel density. KX-01 inhibited cell growth in vitro and in combination with paclitaxel resulted in synergistic growth inhibition. KX-01 resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-157 tumor xenografts (1 and 5 mg/kg, twice daily). KX-01 inhibited activity of Src and downstream mediator FAK in tumors that was coincident with reduced proliferation and angiogenesis and increased apoptosis. KX01 also resulted in microtubule disruption in tumors. Combination of KX-01 with paclitaxel resulted in significant regression of MDA-MB-231 tumors and reduced metastasis to mouse lung and liver. KX-01 is a potently active Src/pretubulin inhibitor that inhibits breast tumor growth and metastasis. As ER/PR/HER2-negative patients are candidates for paclitaxel therapy, combination with KX-01 may potentiate antitumor efficacy in management of this aggressive breast cancer subtype. Mol Cancer Ther; 11(9); 1936-47. ?2012 AACR.     

组蛋白脱乙酰化酶抑制剂对Kasumi-1细胞血管新生相关因子表达的影响

目的 研究组蛋白脱乙酰化酶(HDAC)抑制剂丙戊酸钠(VPA)及曲古菌素(TSA)对白血病细胞系Kasumi-1细胞血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)、VEGF受体(KDR或FLK-1)及碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF)表达的影响,探讨其抗白血病血管新生的可能机制.方法 采用RT-PCR及Western blot方法 分析不同浓度VPA、TSA处理Kasumi-1细胞3 d后VEGF及其受体KDR mRNA及蛋白水平的变化,RT-PCR检测bFGF mRNA水平的变化.结果 VPA能够下调VEGF mRNA(3 mmol/L时处理组VEGF121 0.034±0.004、VEGF165 0.015±0.001,对照组分别为0.632±0.014、0.526±0.021)、KDRmRNA(3 mmol/L组0.038±0.000对0.258±0.034)及蛋白的表达,下调bFGF mRNA(3 mmol/L组0.086±0.015对0.228±0.017)的表达;TSA对VEGF、KDR mRNA及蛋白表达的影响与VPA相似,较高浓度的TSA能够下调bFGF mRNA的表达.结论 HDAC抑制剂可能通过调节血管新生相关因子及受体的表达,阻碍白血病患者的血管新生,从而抑制白血病的进展.     

Histone tail modifications and noncanonical functions of histones: perspectives in cancer epigenetics

Over the past few years, the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have occupied an important place in the effort to develop novel, but less toxic, anticancer therapy. HDAC inhibitors block HDACs, which are the enzymes responsible for histone deacetylation, and therefore they modulate gene expression. The cellular effects of HDAC inhibitors include growth arrest and the induction of differentiation. Early successes in cancer therapeutics obtained using these drugs alone or in combination with other anticancer drugs emphasize the important place of posttranslational modifications of histones in cancer therapy. Histone tail modifications along with DNA methylation are the most studied epigenetic events related to cancer progression. Moreover, extranuclear functions of histones have also been described. Because HDAC inhibitors block HDACs and thereby increase histone acetylation, we propose a model wherein exogenous acetylated histones or other related acetylated proteins that are introduced into the nucleus become HDAC substrates and thereby compete with endogenous histones for HDACs. This competition may lead to the increased acetylation of the endogenous histones, as in the case of HDAC inhibitor therapy. Moreover, other mechanisms of action, such as binding to chromatin and modulating gene expression, are also possible for exogenously introduced histones.     

Effects of Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor (HDACi); Trichostatin-A (TSA) on the expression of housekeeping genes

In quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), analysis of gene expression is dependent on normalization using housekeeping genes such as 18S rRNA, GAPDH and beta actin. However, variability in their expression has been reported to be caused by factors like drug treatment, pathological states and cell-cycle phase. An emerging area of cancer research focuses on identifying the role of epigenetic alterations such as histone modifications and DNA methylation in the initiation and progression of cancer. Histone acetylation is the best studied modification so far and has been probed through the use of histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi). Further, modulation of histone acetylation is currently being explored as a therapeutic strategy in the treatment of cancer and HDACis have shown promise in inhibiting tumorigenesis and metastasis. Trichostatin-A (TSA) is the most widely used HDACi. Therefore, we were driven to identify a suitable internal control for RT-PCR following TSA treatment. We performed quantitative RT-PCR analysis using mouse prostate tissue explants, human prostate cancer (LNCaP) cells and human breast cancer (T-47D and ZR-75-1) cells following TSA treatment. Expression of housekeeping genes including 18S rRNA, beta actin, GAPDH and ribosomal highly-basic 23-kDa protein (rb 23-kDa, RPL13A) were compared in vehicle versus TSA treated samples. Our results showed marked variations in 18S rRNA, beta actin mRNA and GAPDH mRNA levels in mouse prostate explants and a human prostate cancer (LNCaP) cell line following TSA treatment. Furthermore, in two human breast cancer cell lines (T-47D and ZR-75-1) 18S rRNA, beta actin mRNA and GAPDH mRNA levels varied significantly. However, RPL13A mRNA levels remained constant in all the conditions tested. Therefore, we recommend use of RPL13A as a standard for normalization during TSA treatment.     

MGCD0103, a novel isotype-selective histone deacetylase inhibitor, has broad spectrum antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo

Nonselective inhibitors of human histone deacetylases (HDAC) are known to have antitumor activity in mice in vivo, and several of them are under clinical investigation. The first of these, Vorinostat (SAHA), has been approved for treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Questions remain concerning which HDAC isotype(s) are the best to target for anticancer activity and whether increased efficacy and safety will result with an isotype-selective HDAC inhibitor. We have developed an isotype-selective HDAC inhibitor, MGCD0103, which potently targets human HDAC1 but also has inhibitory activity against HDAC2, HDAC3, and HDAC11 in vitro. In intact cells, MGCD0103 inhibited only a fraction of the total HDAC activity and showed long-lasting inhibitory activity even upon drug removal. MGCD0103 induced hyperacetylation of histones, selectively induced apoptosis, and caused cell cycle blockade in various human cancer cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. MGCD0103 exhibited potent and selective antiproliferative activities against a broad spectrum of human cancer cell lines in vitro, and HDAC inhibitory activity was required for these effects. In vivo, MGCD0103 significantly inhibited growth of human tumor xenografts in nude mice in a dose-dependent manner and the antitumor activity correlated with induction of histone acetylation in tumors. Our findings suggest that the isotype-selective HDAC inhibition by MGCD0103 is sufficient for antitumor activity in vivo and that further clinical investigation is warranted.     

Histone deacetylase inhibitors exhibit anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in a rat permanent ischemic model of stroke: multiple mechanisms of action

The pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia involves multiple mechanisms including neuroinflammation mediated by activated microglia and infiltrating macrophages/monocytes. The present study employed a rat permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) model to study effects of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition on ischemia-induced brain infarction, neuroinflammation, gene expression, and neurological deficits. We found that post-pMCAO injections with HDAC inhibitors, valproic acid (VPA), sodium butyrate (SB), or trichostatin A (TSA), decreased brain infarct volume. Postinsult treatment with VPA or SB also suppressed microglial activation, reduced the number of microglia, and inhibited other inflammatory markers in the ischemic brain. The reduction in levels of acetylated histone H3 in the ischemic brain was prevented by treatment with VPA, SB, or TSA. Moreover, injections with HDAC inhibitors superinduced heat-shock protein 70 and blocked pMCAO-induced down-regulation of phospho-Akt, as well as ischemia-elicited up-regulation of p53, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2. The motor, sensory, and reflex performance of pMCAO rats was improved by VPA, SB, or TSA treatment. The beneficial effects of SB and VPA in reducing brain infarct volume and neurological deficits occurred when either drug was administrated at least 3 h after ischemic onset, and the behavioral improvement was long-lasting. Together, our results demonstrate robust neuroprotective effects of HDAC inhibitors against cerebral ischemia-induced brain injury. The neuroprotection probably involves multiple mechanisms including suppression of ischemia-induced cerebral inflammation. Given that there is no effective treatment for stroke, HDAC inhibitors, such as VPA, SB, and TSA, should be evaluated for their potential use for clinical trials in stroke patients.     

Antitumor activity of histone deacetylase inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer cells: development of a molecular predictive model

To ascertain the potential for histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor-based treatment in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), we analyzed the antitumor effects of trichostatin A (TSA) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (vorinostat) in a panel of 16 NSCLC cell lines via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. TSA and vorinostat both displayed strong antitumor activities in 50% of NSCLC cell lines, suggesting the need for the use of predictive markers to select patients receiving this treatment. There was a strong correlation between the responsiveness to TSA and vorinostat (P < 0.0001). To identify a molecular model of sensitivity to HDAC inhibitor treatment in NSCLC, we conducted a gene expression profiling study using cDNA arrays on the same set of cell lines and related the cytotoxic activity of TSA to corresponding gene expression pattern using a modified National Cancer Institute program. In addition, pathway analysis was done with Pathway Architect software. We used nine genes, which were identified by gene-drug sensitivity correlation and pathway analysis, to build a support vector machine algorithm model by which sensitive cell lines were distinguished from resistant cell lines. The prediction performance of the support vector machine model was validated by an additional nine cell lines, resulting in a prediction value of 100% with respect to determining response to TSA and vorinostat. Our results suggested that (a) HDAC inhibitors may be promising anticancer drugs to NSCLC and (b) the nine-gene classifier is useful in predicting drug sensitivity to HDAC inhibitors and may contribute to achieving individualized therapy for NSCLC patients.