Coffee drinking and cigarette smoking: I. coffee,caffeine and cigarette smoking behavior

Two experiments designed to assess the relationship between coffee intake and smoking are reported. In Experiment I, coffee drinking smokers were randomly assigned to four groups in which they received 0, 1, 2, or 3 cups of coffee during two one-hour sessions while they worked on crossword puzzles. Results showed that subjects receiving coffee in any amount smoked more than subjects who were not provided coffee. Moderate and low rate smokers were then randomly assigned to one of five groups in Experiment II, in which they were provided no drink, water, Postum^® (a coffee substitute), caffeinated, or decaffeinated coffee. These groups were selected to assess the characteristics of coffee that may have influenced increased smoking. Results for number of cigarettes smoked and puff rate generally showed that subjects receiving caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee smoked more than subjects in the no drink or water control groups. The results of this study provide experimental evidence of the role of coffee in setting the occasion for smoking, as well as ruling out the presence of a liquid or caffeine as the important characteristics of coffee in influencing smoking.     

Alcohol increases cigarette smoking: a laboratory demonstration

Most people would agree that a relationship exists between drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes, but there is very little empirical evidence demonstrating a direct causal association. Study of the relationship has been hampered by the lack of a simple laboratory methodology. This article describes an efficient experimental paradigm. Fourteen male narcotic addicts in methadone maintenance treatment volunteered to come to the laboratory for two smoking sessions, during which each subject was given either an alcoholic drink or orange juice, followed by three cigarettes at 20-minute intervals. Drinking alcohol significantly increased the amount and rate of smoking. However, not all subjects reacted to alcohol with increased smoking, and we were unable to account for those individual differences. Our finding supports the theory that a direct causal mechanism linking smoking and drinking exists. That link probably has clinical significance, because there is evidence that ex-smokers are at particularly high risk when they drink alcohol.     

Hyperactivity and alcoholism: Familial and behavioral correlates

This study examined the relationship between childhood MBD/hyperactivity, familial alcoholism, and alcoholism severity, current psychopathology, and performance on three behavioral indices of impulsivity/attentional control. The subjects were 33 men VA alcoholic inpatients carefully screened to be free of complicating neurological, medical, and psychiatric problems. The findings indicated that subjects higher in MBD/hyperactivity reported considerably more psychopathology and tended to suffer more adverse effects associated with alcoholism than low MBD/hyperactivity subjects. Familial alcoholics reported significantly more childhood MBD/hyperactivity than nonfamilial alcoholics,a finding supported by higher MMPI hypomanic scores. Group differences were not found on any of the measures of impulsivity/attentional control.     

Biofeedback: a possible substitute for smoking, experiment I

Biofeedback techniques were utilized in this study to identify those physiological variables which possibly contribute to maintenance of cigarette smoking and to investigate the hypothesis that smoking frequency would decrease when individuals were trained via biofeedback procedures to increase 8-12 Hz occipital EEG activity as a substitute for smoking. Results of the study indicate that of the six smokers physiologically monitored, the following physiological changes occurred while actually smoking one cigarette: four smokers increased the percent of time they were producing 4-8 cycle per second (Hz) brain waves; five smokers increased their heart rate (beats per minute); all six smokers decreased their 8-12 Hz activity. Immediately after the smoking of one cigarette, six of the smokers demonstrated an increase in their heart rate and four of the smokers demonstrated a decrease in their skin temperature. There did not appear to be any specific consistent brain wave change across the subjects. Two smokers, who were able to continue producing high levels of 8-12 Hz activity without use of the biofeedback equipment, were able to quit completely at the end of an eight-month followup period.     

Antecedents, subjective expected utility, and behavior: a panel study of adolescent cigarette smoking

That the weighing of positive and negative consequences expected from behavior is fundamental to understanding behavior is central to many theories. We consider this in the context of subjective expected utility (SEU) and cigarette smoking in a panel study of 1,334 adolescents. There were reciprocal relationships between SEU and behavior, and SEU accounted for the association between some social and psychological variables and smoking behavior. We conclude that SEU contributes to the explanation of adolescent smoking behavior.     

Cigarette smoking, manifest anxiety and somatic symptoms

Fifty smokers and fifty non-smokers were administered the MMPI's Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS). Mean MAS scores for smokers were significantly higher than those of non-smokers. Item analysis revealed that smokers obtained higher scores than non-smokers on significantly more items in which anxiety is manifested by a physical symptom rather than a psychological symptom. It is possible that physical stimulation by nicotine may contribute to a more ready arousal to anxiety in smokers.     

Variables related to long-term smoking status following cardiac events

Abstinence rates for smokers following a myocardial infarction (MI) or coronary by-pass surgery (CABG) are far superior to those for persons attending formal cessation programs. However, only two studies have used any biochemical verification of self-report in this population, and it is unclear what variables are associated with successful cessation post-MI or -CABG. The present study used alveolar carbon monoxide levels to verify self-report of post-MI and -CABG veterans and obtained only a 29% abstinence rate. Most abstinent veterans quit immediately after their first cardiac event, and only the belief that smoking contributed to their cardiac problems predicted long-term smoking status.     

The effects of stress and relaxation in the presence of stress on urinary pH and smoking behaviors

The present study examined the influence of stress and relaxation in the presence of stress on smoking behavior and urinary pH. Thirty-two male heavy smokers were randomly assigned to one of three stress groups or a control group. The three stress groups were informed that the last phase of the experiment involved giving a speech to a group of graduate students. They then listened to either a stress enhancing tape, taped relaxation instructions, or a neutral tape. Stress instructions were omitted for the control subjects, and they listened to the neutral tape. Objective (skin conductance response) and subjective (state anxiety) measures of arousal indicated that the treatments had their intended effects. Following treatment subjects were left alone for a 35-minute period during which their smoking behaviors were monitored. The Relaxation Group smoked significantly fewer centimeters of cigarettes (p<.01) and at a significantly slower rate (p<.01) than the subjects in the two other stress groups. The relationships among stress, urinary pH, relaxation instructions, and smoking behaviors were discussed.     

Psychosocial mediators of abstinence, relapse, and continued smoking: a one-year follow-up of a minimal intervention

This study investigates the relationship of health locus of control, health beliefs, social support, use of nonsmoking areas, and objecting to another person's smoking to long-term abstinence and relapse following a minimal intervention for smoking cessation. Subjects participated in a single session group hypnosis treatment for smoking cessation. Questionnaires were completed by participants pretreatment and at a 1-year follow-up. Ex-smoker, recidivist, and continuing smoker groups were defined using follow-up data from 219 participants (70 males and 149 females). The data were analyzed using univariate and multiple discriminant analysis techniques. The results show that the three smoking status groups could be discriminated. Ex-smokers actively coped with smokers in their environment, avoided other smokers in public places, and received considerable support from spouses and friends. In contrast, recidivists prior to treatment had been unable to quit smoking for extended periods of time and placed greater responsibility on powerful others for their health. Following treatment, recidivists did not actively cope with smokers, were more likely to participate in additional hypnosis, and placed less responsibility on either powerful others or themselves for their own health. It was concluded that posttreatment factors appear to be more important for long-term maintenance of nonsmoking than entry characteristics of participants. Recommendations include incorporation of coping skills training into cessation programs and restrictions on smoking in the ex-smokers' environments to prevent relapse.     

Nicotine gum in smoking cessation: a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial

Sixty subjects were run in a study comparing the use of nicotine gum with placebo gum during cessation from smoking. Subjects were given clinic support and chewed the gum ad libitum. A survival analysis showed the two groups differed significantly in successful abstinence over time (p less than .03). Differences between groups appeared early (within weeks) and, at six months, a 28% superiority of nicotine over placebo gum was demonstrated with mean success rates of 48% and 20%, respectively. Between six months and one year, relapse in the nicotine group accounted for the 30% vs. 20% success rates for nicotine and placebo observed at one year. In a pilot study ("dispensary") testing the efficacy of the two gums when intervention was minimal, subjects in both groups resumed smoking within the first two weeks. The enhanced short-term success rates with nicotine gum in the clinic study are attributed to an effective interaction between use of the active preparation and clinic support. Long-term cessation may require extended maintenance procedures and/or an identification of optimal gum use.     

Mazindol: its efficacy and mode of action in generating weight loss.

The influence of the anorectic mazindol in weight loss was investigated in a double-blind protocol. Additionally, the behavioral and metabolic effects of the drug were studied in order to determine its mechanism of action. Drug eligible participants were randomly assigned to mazindol and placebo and contrasted with a group of non drug eligible controls. All subjects attended a series of 6 lectures on the modification of eating and activity. Weight loss was greater for mazindol than placebo subjects (P < 0.05). Mazindol also decreased hunger ratings and between meal snacking. No differences were observed on the metabolic measures, laboratory eating and salivary output. Subjects on mazindol exhibited a greater incidence of side-effects. It may be that the influence of mazindol, and perhaps other anorectics as well, is in part attributed to positive expectations of reduced hunger which are induced by side-effects.