Effect of methionine supplement on physical responses and neurological symptoms in broiler chicks fed grass pea (Lathyrus sativus)-based starter ration

Starter feeding experiments of broiler chicks with raw grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) supplemented with different levels of DL-methionine were undertaken for 4 weeks to assess the toxicity of grass pea-based feed and to correlate it with neurological symptoms. Four hundred fifty day-old broiler chicks were divided into two groups and were given formulations containing 35% (ration I) or 98.5% (ration II) grass pea, respectively. Each ration included controls and treatments with added methionine of four different concentrations. Feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) were much higher in ration I than in ration II and these parameters significantly improved by addition of methionine in both rations. Significant increase of neurological signs with higher grass pea intake and significant reduction of acute neurological signs with addition of methionine were observed. Tolerance for grass pea was enhanced with increasing methionine in the diet and with age. Despite a similarity in the initial intake, a significant (p ? 0.05) increase in the final feed intake by the chicks with methionine addition was found in both rations. These results suggest that methionine can improve a grass pea-based diet for broiler chicks and especially can protect young chicks from neurological symptoms.     

Grass Pea and Neurolathyrism: Farmers’ perception on its consumption and protective measure in North Shewa, Ethiopia

Neurolathyrism in Ethiopia is caused by food dependency on grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.). In the study area, a large proportion of the farmers are growing grass pea since it can withstand harsh environments. Socio-economic factors (poverty; lack of money to buy other food legumes) and environmental problems (such as water logging and frost hazards) influence consumption of grass pea. Most of the respondents have the idea that some chemical contained in grass pea causes a health problem. Different processing and preparation methods are used to prepare grass pea into different food forms. The major processing methods include washing and soaking, as the farmers apply these methods mainly because they assume that the chemical that causes lathyrism, scientifically known as β-ODAP (β-N-oxalyl-l-α,β-diaminopropionic acid) is reduced through washing and soaking. The farmers adopt different strategies to avoid the problem of lathyrism such as avoiding consumption of grass pea in the form that they suspect to cause the problem, blending/mixing with other crops, applying different processing/detoxification methods. Since grass pea is consumed with a fear of lathyrism, future research should concentrate either on developing grass pea varieties with safe level of β-ODAP content or improving the traditional/indigenous processing methods.     

Epidemiologic and clinical survey of victims of centipede stings admitted to Hospital Vital Brazil (São Paulo, Brazil)

We retrospectively analyzed 98 proven cases of centipede stings admitted to Hospital Vital Brazil, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil, between 1990 and 2007. Most stings occurred at the metropolitan area of São Paulo city (n = 94, 95.9%), in the domiciles of patients (n = 67, 68.4%), and during the warm-rainy season (n = 60, 61.2%). The mean age of the victims was 32.0 ± 18.8-years-old. Cryptops and Otostigmus genera were responsible for most cases. Around 86% of the patients sought medical care within 6 h after the sting. Both lower (56.1 %) and upper limbs (41.8 %) were most frequently bitten, especially the feet and hands (89.8%). The most frequent local clinical manifestations were pain (94.9%), erythema (44.9%) and edema (21.4%), and the latter was mainly observed in patients bitten by Otostigmus spp. Supportive treatment was used in only 28.6% of the patients, namely administration of local anesthesia (9.2%) and systemic analgesia (13.3%). No sequels or complications were observed in patients, and the prognostic was benign.     

A new unifying hypothesis for lathyrism, konzo and tropical ataxic neuropathy: Nitriles are the causative agents

Konzo and lathyrism are associated with consumption of cassava and grass pea, respectively. Cassava consumption has also been associated with a third disease, tropical ataxic neuropathy (TAN). This review presents a new unifying hypothesis on the causative agents for these diseases: namely, that they are nitriles, compounds containing cyano groups. The diseases may be caused by different but similar nitriles through direct neurotoxic actions not mediated by systemic cyanide release. Both cassava and Lathyrus contain nitriles, and other unidentified nitriles can be generated during food processing or in the human body. Available data indicate that several small nitriles cause a variety of neurotoxic effects. In experimental animals, 3,3′-iminodipropionitrile (IDPN), allylnitrile and cis-crotononitrile cause sensory toxicity, whereas hexadienenitrile and trans-crotononitrile induce selective neuronal degeneration in discrete brain regions. IDPN also induces a neurofilamentous axonopathy, and dimethylaminopropionitrile is known to cause autonomic (genito-urinary) neurotoxicity in both humans and rodents. Some of these actions depend on metabolic bioactivation of the parental nitriles, and sex- and species-dependent differences in susceptibility have been recorded. Recently, neuronal degeneration has been found in rats exposed to acetone cyanohydrin. Taken together, the neurotoxic properties of nitriles make them excellent candidates as causative agents for konzo, lathyrism and TAN.     

In vitro Studies of Antimicrobial Activity of Crude Extracts of the Indian Grasses Dhaman (Cenchrus ciliaris) and Kala-Dhaman (Cenchrus setigerus)

The aim of present study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerus extracts in order to use it as a possible source for new antimicrobial substances against important human pathogens. Crude extracts of the stem of Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerus were evaluated against some medically important pathogens viz. Escherichia coli, Raoultella planticola, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Candida albicans and Aspergillus flavus. The dried and powdered stems were successively extracted with hexane, toluene, isopropyl alcohol, acetone and ethanol using soxhlet assembly. The antimicrobial activity assay was done by both disc diffusion and serial dilution methods. Isopropyl alcohol extract of Cenchrus setigerus showed highest activity against Escherichia coli. The test pathogens were more sensitive to the isopropyl alcohol, acetone and ethanol extracts than to the hexane and toluene extracts except against Bacillus subtilis. Result reveals that the most bioactive compound was cycloleucolenol-9,19-cycloergost-24 (28)-en-3-ol, 4, 14-dimethyl acetate in both the species of Cenchrus grass, (19.15%) in isopropanol extract of Cenchrus setigerus whereas, (14.03%) in acetone extract of Cenchrus ciliaris.     

Studies on neurolathyrism in Ethiopia: Dietary habits, perception of risks and prevention

This study describes the correlation of traditional perceptions and dietary habits with the incidence of neurolathyrism to propose preventive measures. Therefore, 118 households of South Wollo and North Gondar (Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia), of which one third had at least one neurolathyrism affected member, were interviewed.Most of the affected families in this study had one neurolathyrism victim, being predominantly male and of younger age. The incidence among youngsters (boys and girls) was significantly correlated with the consumption of green unripe seeds (eshet), confirming this as a risk factor for developing neurolathyrism. The consumption of other popular grass pea preparations was not age related. Neurolathyrism patients did not attempt any medication as most people knew that neurolathyrism is incurable, but the consumption of grass pea was abandoned after developing the disease. The minority ‘Woito’ tribe was virtually unaffected. They were the only people reporting to consume fish which is rich in amino acids such as methionine and using metallic kitchen utensils in addition to clay pots. This observation points to the correlation between low neurolathyrism incidence and a better balanced diet as well as metallic kitchen utensils, suggesting a new approach for neurolathyrism prevention.     

Candida bloodstream infections: comparison of species distribution and resistance to echinocandin and azole antifungal agents in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and non-ICU settings in the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2008-2009)

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) data from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program generated by reference methods were analysed to compare the antifungal resistance profiles and species distribution of Candida bloodstream infection (BSI) isolates obtained from patients in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and those from non-ICU locations. Results from 79 medical centres between 2008 and 2009 were tabulated. MIC values were obtained for anidulafungin, caspofungin, micafungin, fluconazole, posaconazole and voriconazole. Recently revised Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute breakpoints for resistance were employed. A total of 1752 isolates of Candida spp. were obtained from ICU (779; 44.5%) and non-ICU (973; 55.5%) settings. The frequency of ICU-associated Candida BSI was higher in Latin America (56.5%) compared with Europe (44.4%) and North America (39.6%). The frequency of candidaemia in the ICU decreased both in Latin America and North America over the 2-year study period. Approximately 96% of isolates both in ICU and non-ICU settings were caused by only five species (Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei). Resistance both to azoles and echinocandins was uncommon in ICU and non-ICU settings. Overall, fluconazole resistance was detected in 5.0% of ICU isolates and 4.4% of non-ICU isolates. Candida glabrata was the only species in which resistance to azoles and echinocandins was noted, and this multidrug-resistant phenotype was found in both settings. In conclusion, the findings from this global survey indicate that invasive candidiasis can no longer be considered to be just an ICU-related infection, and efforts to design preventive and diagnostic strategies must be expanded to include other at-risk populations and hospital environments. Concern regarding C. glabrata must now include resistance to echinocandins as well as azole antifungal agents.     

Genetic regulation of the ramA locus and its expression in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae

Tigecycline resistance has been attributed to ramA overexpression and subsequent acrA upregulation. The ramA locus, originally identified in Klebsiella pneumoniae, has homologues in Enterobacter and Salmonella spp. In this study, we identify in silico that the ramR binding site is also present in Citrobacter spp. and that Enterobacter, Citrobacter and Klebsiella spp. share key regulatory elements in the control of the romA-ramA locus. RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) mapping indicated that there are two promoters from which romA-ramA expression can be regulated in K. pneumoniae. Correspondingly, electrophoretic binding studies clearly showed that purified RamA and RamR proteins bind to both of these promoters. Hence, there appear to be two RamR binding sites within the Klebsiella romA-ramA locus. Like MarA, RamA binds the promoter region, implying that it might be subject to autoregulation. We have identified changes within ramR in geographically distinct clinical isolates of K. pneumoniae. Intriguingly, levels of romA and ramA expression were not uniformly affected by changes within the ramR gene, thereby supporting the dual promoter finding. Furthermore, a subset of strains sustained no changes within the ramR gene but which still overexpressed the romA-ramA genes, strongly suggesting that a secondary regulator may control ramA expression.     

Diversity of Pea-Associated F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides Populations Revealed by FUM1 Sequence Analysis and Fumonisin Biosynthesis

Fusarium proliferatum and F. verticillioides are considered as minor pathogens of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Both species can survive in seed material without visible disease symptoms, but still contaminating it with fumonisins. Two populations of pea-derived F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides strains were subjected to FUM1 sequence divergence analysis, forming a distinct group when compared to the collection strains originating from different host species. Furthermore, the mycotoxigenic abilities of those strains were evaluated on the basis of in planta and in vitro fumonisin biosynthesis. No differences were observed in fumonisin B (FB) levels measured in pea seeds (maximum level reached 1.5 μg g⁻¹); however, in rice cultures, the majority of F. proliferatum genotypes produced higher amounts of FB₁–FB₃ than F. verticillioides strains.     

Pharmacists’ role,work practices,and safety measures against COVID-19: A comparative study

BackgroundThe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic poses a great challenge to health systems and their most accessible assets—community pharmacies. Pharmacists faced many challenges such as incorporating safety measures, changes in working schedule and workload, and meeting specific patients’ needs.ObjectivesThis study aimed to explore and compare the community pharmacists’ roles, practices, implemented safety measures, and psychological toll in Croatia and Serbia during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsA cross-sectional study employing an online survey was conducted in 2 countries over a period of 6 weeks during 2020. The survey consisted of 65 items that explored sociodemographic characteristics of participants and their workplaces, including safety measures, pharmaceutical care, and their psychology while working during the COVID-19 pandemic.ResultsIn total, 574 pharmacists participated in the study, of which, 90% were female, with a mean age of 38 years (interquartile range 30.5–47). The study identified new pharmacists’ roles that evolved during the COVID-19 pandemic: manufacturing hand sanitizers in community pharmacies, online patient counseling, and home delivery of medicines. Croatian and Serbian pharmacists exhibited disparities in their incorporated safety measures (higher for Croatia; P ≤ 0.001) and satisfaction with work organization and counseling activities (higher for Serbia; P < 0.001). Serbian participants were less satisfied with the public perception of their role during the pandemic, and overall satisfaction was low, with a negative impact on mood and productivity.ConclusionsThe study revealed the implications for community pharmacists during the pandemic in both countries. The extent of systematic and logistical support provided to them during the pandemic could be an explanation for the highlighted differences. It is imperative to develop a more effective strategy to counter potential health crises to ensure a better response from primary care pharmacists in the future.     

Antioxidation,angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition activity,nattokinase, and antihypertension of Bacillus subtilis (natto)-fermented pigeon pea

Because of the high incidence of cardiovascular diseases in Asian countries, traditional fermented foods from Asia have been increasingly investigated for antiatherosclerotic effects. This study investigated the production of nattokinase, a serine fibrinolytic enzyme, in pigeon pea by Bacillus subtilis fermentation. B. subtilis 14714, B. subtilis 14715, B. subtilis 14716, and B. subtilis 14718 were employed to produce nattokinase. The highest nattokinase activity in pigeon pea was obtained using B. subtilis 14715 fermentation for 32 hours. In addition, the levels of antioxidants (phenolics and flavonoids) and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory activity were increased in B. subtilis 14715-fermented pigeon pea, compared with those in nonfermented pigeon pea. In an animal model, we found that both water extracts of pigeon pea (100 mg/kg body weight) and water extracts of B. subtilis-fermented pigeon pea (100 mg/kg body weight) significantly improved systolic blood pressure (21 mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure (30 mmHg) in spontaneously hypertensive rats. These results suggest that Bacillus-fermented pigeon pea has benefits for cardiovascular health and can be developed as a new dietary supplement or functional food that prevents hypertension.     

Detection and quantification of maitotoxin-like compounds using a neuroblastoma (Neuro-2a) cell based assay. Application to the screening of maitotoxin-like compounds in Gambierdiscus spp.

SK&F 96365 was used in a Neuroblastoma (Neuro-2a) cell based assay to determine the production of maitotoxin-like (MTX-like) compounds in two strains of Gambierdiscus spp. A 2.5 hour assay was effective for the detection of the MTX-induced toxic effects with a concentration that inhibited 50% cell viability (IC₅₀) equivalent to 3.38 nM MTX. Evidence was found for the production of MTX-like compounds in both Gambierdiscus strains studied at concentrations of 404 and 36.7 nmoles MTX equivalence per 10⁶ cells. The assay is proposed as an efficient approach to the detection and quantification of MTX-like compounds in Gambierdiscus spp.     

First report of anatoxin-a-producing cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi in northeastern Germany

The neurotoxin anatoxin-a (ATX), has been detected in several northeast German lakes during the last two decades, but no ATX producers have been identified in German water bodies so far. In 2007 and 2008, we analyzed phytoplankton composition and ATX concentration in Lake Stolpsee (NE Germany) in order to identify ATX producers. Sixty-one Aphanizomenon spp. strains were isolated, morphologically and phylogenetically characterized, and tested for ATX production potential by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). New primers were specifically designed to identify a fragment of a polyketide synthase gene putatively involved in ATX synthesis and tested on all 61 Aphanizomenon spp. strains from L. Stolpsee and 92 non-ATX-producing Aphanizomenon spp., Anabaena spp. and Anabaenopsis spp. strains from German lakes Langersee, Melangsee and Scharmützelsee.As demonstrated by LC-MS/MS, ATX concentrations in L. Stolpsee were undetectable in 2007 and ranged from 0.01 to 0.12 μg l⁻¹ in 2008. Fifty-nine of the 61 strains isolated were classified as Aphanizomenon gracile and two as Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi. One A. issatschenkoi strain was found to produce ATX at concentrations of 2354 ± 273 μg g⁻¹ fresh weight, whereas the other A. issatschenkoi strain and A. gracile strains tested negative. The polyketide synthase gene putatively involved in ATX biosynthesis was found in the ATX-producing A. issatschenkoi strain from L. Stolpsee but not in the non-ATX-producing Aphanizomenon spp., Anabaena spp. and Anabaenopsis spp. strains from lakes Stolpsee, Langersee, Melangsee, and Scharmützelsee.This study is the first confirming A. issatschenkoi as an ATX producer in German water bodies.     

Characterizing diversity based on nutritional and bioactive compositions of yam germplasm (Dioscorea spp.) commonly cultivated in China

Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are widely cultivated as edible resources and medical materials in China. Characterizing chemical compositions in yam germplasm is crucial to determine their diversity and suitability for food and medicine applications. In this study, a core germplasm containing 25 yam landraces was used to create an effective classification of usage by characterizing their nutritive and medicinal compositions. All studied landraces exhibited high contents of starch from 60.7% to 80.6% dry weight (DW), protein (6.3–12.2% DW), minerals (especially Mg 326.8–544.7 mg/kg DW), and essential amino acids. Allantoin and dioscin varied considerably, with values of 0.62–1.49% DW and 0.032–0.092% DW, respectively. The quality variability of 25 yam landraces was clearly separated in light of UPGMA clustering and principal component analysis (PCA). Using an eigenvalue ≥1 as the cutoff, the first three principal components accounted for most of the total variability (62.33%). Classification was achieved based on the results of the measured parameters and principal component analysis scores. The results are of great help in determining appropriate application strategies for yam germplasm in China.     

Bites by the colubrid snake Philodryas patagoniensis: A clinical and epidemiological study of 297 cases

We retrospectively analyzed 297 proven cases of Philodryas patagoniensis bites admitted to Hospital Vital Brazil (HVB), Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil, between 1959 and 2008. Only cases in which the causative animal was brought and identified were included. Part of the snakes brought by the patients was still preserved in the collection maintained by the Laboratory of Herpetology. Of the 297 cases, in 199 it was possible to describe the gender of the snake, and seventy three (61.3%) of them were female. The length of snakes (snout-vent length) ranged from 160 to 1080 mm. In 117 snakes their state of preservation enabled the dissection and examination of their stomach contents. The stomach was empty in 106 snakes (89.1%). Most bites occurred in the seasons of spring and summer (n = 196, 66.0%) and during warmer periods of the day. The mean age of the victims was 24.1 ± 15.1 years old and 206 (69.4%) patients were men. Around 92% of the patients sought medical care within 6 h after the bite. Both lower (n = 188, 63.3%) and upper limbs (n = 102, 34.3%) were most frequently bitten, especially the feet and hands (n = 205, 69.0%). The local clinical manifestations were pain (n = 151, 50.8%), transitory bleeding (n = 106, 35.7%), erythema (n = 47, 15.8%) and edema (n = 39, 13.1%). Ecchymosis was not observed. Only 7 (2.4%) patients reported systemic symptoms characterized by mild dizziness and 88 patients (29.6%) showed no evidence of envenoming. The whole blood clotting time was performed in 76 (25.6%) patients on admission and all of them had coagulable blood. Supportive treatment was offered to only 13.4% of patients, namely administration of antihistamines (n = 19, 6.4%) and analgesics (n = 12, 4.1%). Eight patients (2.7%) were mistreated with Bothrops antivenom before their admission to HVB. No sequels or relevant complications were observed in patients, and the prognostic was benign. Therefore, although P. patagoniensis accidents can cause mild local symptomatology, it is very important that health professionals know how to make the correct diagnosis to avoid unnecessary use of antivenom.     

Rapid screening of toxic glycoalkaloids and micronutrients in edible nightshades (Solanum spp.)

African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) because of their nutrient density have the unique potential to reduce micronutrient deficiencies in sub-Saharan Africa, yet some may also contain anti-nutritive compounds. Vegetable nightshades from Solanum americanum, Solanum nigrum, Solanum scabrum and Solanum villosum are among the major AIVs used as a leafy vegetables and consumed regularly in many countries in sub-Sahara Africa. These under-recognized food crops have not been subjected to extensive studies for their nutritional and antinutritive factors. In this study, 15 entries of the vegetable nightshades were field-grown and the leaves which are the consumed product of commerce chemically profiled by LC/ESI-MS. Twenty-three flavones, eight saponins, and two glycoalkaloids along with a phenolic acid of chlorogenic acid were identified by MS and UV data. Anti-nutrient glycoalkaloids were quantified as total aglycones after acidic hydrolysis using MS detection and found to be within safe-consumption thresholds by comparison with the glycoalkaloid level in the globally consumed Solanum member eggplants. Edible nightshades were also found to be sources of β-carotene, vitamin E and total polyphenols and exhibited high antioxidant activity. Results of this study support that consumption of vegetable nightshades are safe from the presence of glycoalkaloids and thus, can contribute to the reduction of micronutrient deficiency in sub-Sahara Africa.     

Climatic, edaphic and altitudinal factors affecting yield and toxicity of Lathyrus sativus grown at five locations in Ethiopia

A 2 years (2005-2006) data analysis based on agronomic, qualitative, climatic and edaphic factors was carried out using 10 grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) genotypes grown at five eco-divergent locations (Alem Tena, Debre Zeit, Denbi, Akaki, Chefe Donsa) in Ethiopia. Crop yield showed considerable variability among locations, years and genotypes. Path coefficient analysis indicated that rainfall and days to maturity have a large positive influence on yield. High level of micronutrients Mn²⁺ and S²⁻ negatively affected yield. Path analysis revealed that Zn²⁺/P, days to maturity, yield and K⁺ were dominant variables affecting the response variable β-ODAP (β-N-oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid), the neuro-excitatory amino acid in grass pea seeds considered as the cause of neurolathyrism. Linear correlation analysis between β-ODAP and the 35 factors considered showed that β-ODAP level was positively correlated (r > 0.70) with K⁺ and sunshine hours (ssh) and negatively correlated (r < 0.70) with soil pH, days to maturity and yield. The strongest correlation of ssh with β-ODAP level was found during the phase of crop maturity. Our results suggest that β-ODAP biosynthesis and its response to environmental stress are maximized during the post-anthesis stage.     

Control of Aflatoxin Production of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus Using RNA Silencing Technology by Targeting aflD (nor-1) Gene

Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are important pathogens of cotton, corn, peanuts and other oil-seed crops, producing toxins both in the field and during storage. We have designed three siRNA sequences (Nor-Ia, Nor-Ib, Nor-Ic) to target the mRNA sequence of the aflD gene to examine the potential for using RNA silencing technology to control aflatoxin production. Thus, the effect of siRNAs targeting of two key genes in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway, aflD (structural) and aflR (regulatory gene) and on aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), and aflatoxin G₁ (AFG₁) production was examined. The study showed that Nor-Ib gave a significant decrease in aflD mRNA, aflR mRNA abundance, and AFB₁ production (98, 97 and 97% when compared to the controls) in A. flavus NRRL3357, respectively. Reduction in aflD and aflR mRNA abundance and AFB₁ production increased with concentration of siRNA tested. There was a significant inhibition in aflD and AFB₁ production by A. flavus EGP9 and AFG₁ production by A. parasiticus NRRL 13005. However, there was no significant decrease in AFG₁ production by A. parasiticus SSWT 2999. Changes in AFB₁ production in relation to mRNA levels of aflD showed a good correlation (R = 0.88; P = 0.00001); changes in aflR mRNA level in relation to mRNA level of aflD also showed good correlation (R = 0.82; P = 0.0001). The correlations between changes in aflR and aflD gene expression suggests a strong relationship between these structural and regulatory genes, and that aflD could be used as a target gene to develop efficient means for aflatoxin control using RNA silencing technology.     

The Effect of Co-Administration of Death Camas (Zigadenus spp.) and Low Larkspur (Delphinium spp.) in Cattle

In many rangeland settings, there is more than one potential poisonous plant. Two poisonous plants that are often found growing simultaneously in the same location in North American rangelands are death camas (Zigadenus spp.) and low larkspur (Delphinium spp.). The objective of this study was to determine if co-administration of death camas would exacerbate the toxicity of low larkspur in cattle. Cattle dosed with 2.0 g of death camas/kg BW showed slight frothing and lethargy, whereas cattle dosed with both death camas and low larkspur showed increased clinical signs of poisoning. Although qualitative differences in clinical signs of intoxication in cattle co-treated with death camas and low larkspur were observed, there were not any significant quantitative differences in heart rate or exercise-induced muscle fatigue. Co-treatment with death camas and low larkspur did not affect the serum zygacine kinetics, however, there was a difference in the larkspur alkaloid kinetics in the co-exposure group. Overall, the results from this study suggest that co-exposure to death camas and low larkspur is not significantly more toxic to cattle than exposure to the plants individually. The results from this study increase our knowledge and understanding regarding the acute toxicity of death camas and low larkspur in cattle.