HIV in gay and bisexual men in the United Kingdom: 25 years of public health surveillance

It is more than 25 years since the first case of AIDS was reported in the United Kingdom. In December 1981 a gay man was referred to a London hospital with opportunistic infections indicative of immunosuppression. National surveillance began the following year, in September 1982, with the notification of deaths and clinical reports of AIDS and Kaposi's sarcoma plus laboratory reports of opportunistic infections. Since then epidemiological surveillance systems have evolved, adapting to, and taking advantage of advances in treatments and laboratory techniques. The introduction of the HIV antibody test in 1984 led to the reporting of HIV-positive tests by laboratories and the establishment of an unlinked anonymous survey in 1990 measuring undiagnosed HIV infection among gay men attending sexual health clinics. The widespread use of highly active antiretroviral therapies (HAART) since 1996 has averted many deaths among HIV-positive gay men and has also resulted in a large reduction in AIDS cases. This led to a need for an enumeration of gay men with HIV accessing NHS treatment and care services (1995 onwards), more clinical information on HIV diagnoses for epidemiological surveillance (2000 onwards) and the routine monitoring of drug resistance (2001 onwards). Twenty-five years after the first case of AIDS was reported, gay and bisexual men remain the group at greatest risk of acquiring HIV in the United Kingdom. Latest estimates suggest that in 2004, 26 500 gay and bisexual men were living with HIV in the United Kingdom, a quarter of whom were undiagnosed. In this review, we examine how national surveillance systems have evolved over the past 25 years in response to the changing epidemiology of HIV/AIDS among gay and bisexual men in the United Kingdom as well as advances in laboratory techniques and medical treatments. We also reflect on how they will need to continue evolving to effectively inform health policy in the future.     

A survey of paediatric occupational therapists in the United Kingdom

The purpose of this study was to examine the work of paediatric occupational therapists in the UK, and to compare the results with similar surveys carried out in the US, Australia and Canada. A postal questionnaire survey was sent to 212 members of the National Association of Paediatric Occupational Therapists. Questions were asked about a wide range of issues pertinent to paediatric practice. The results showed that data collected in the UK are similar to those from the three other countries-- for example, in the unique areas of work, such as assessment for adaptive equipment, training in activities of daily living and fine motor skills training, and that there is also some overlap with other disciplines. The study had some limitations in terms of respondents accessed and scope of questions asked. It highlighted a number of areas for further research, one being to identify what undergraduate teaching needs to be made available to students who want to work with children. Several conclusions are drawn, principally that children's occupational therapists tend to remain in the specialization for several years and make good use of postgraduate courses to enhance their practice.     

Migration and HIV risk: life histories of Mexican-born men living with HIV in North Carolina

Latino men in the Southeastern USA are disproportionately affected by HIV, but little is known about how the migration process influences HIV-related risk. In North Carolina, a relatively new immigrant destination, Latino men are predominantly young and from Mexico. We conducted 31 iterative life history interviews with 15 Mexican-born men living with HIV. We used holistic content narrative analysis methods to examine HIV vulnerability in the context of migration and to identify important turning points. Major themes included the prominence of traumatic early-life experiences, migration as an ongoing process rather than a finite event, and HIV diagnosis as a final turning point in migration trajectories. Findings provide a nuanced understanding of HIV vulnerability throughout the migration process and have implications including the need for bi-national HIV-prevention approaches, improved outreach around early testing and linkage to care, and attention to mental health.     

Clinical governance and infection control in the United Kingdom

The recent organizational changes in the NHS have at their core the concept of clinical governance. Although initially poorly defined and understood this term has now taken on a clear identity, placing quality alongside fiscal probity and corporate governance at the top of NHS priorities. Integral to clinical governance are the basic elements of clear national standards for services and treatments that are to be locally delivered through assured, monitored, high quality healthcare. It is within this framework that workers in infection control must develop their own methods of applying clinical governance. This review explores the implications that the strategy of clinical governance holds for the speciality of infection control, emphasizing the benefits its active adoption can bring and highlighting the key relevance of clinical risk management in this setting. It illustrates clinical governance as a tool to engage colleagues on a multi-disciplinary front, most particularly the crucial link to senior Trust management.     

Lazarus Phenomena: an exploratory study of gay men living with HIV

Based on qualitative data collected in 1999 in Dublin, Ireland and Providence, Rhode Island, this study examines psychosocial tasks for gay men with AIDS who are experiencing "Lazarus Phenomena," significant improvement in health and functioning as a result of current medication advances. The data showed a range of reactions, supportive of the literature on "uncertainty in illness," and suggesting that long term survival with AIDS requires an exceptional tolerance for ambiguity and an ability to reconstruct the future-skills which may co-vary with economic/career opportunities, social supports and individual resilience.     

The impact of COVID-19 on abortion access: Insights from the European Union and the United Kingdom

Government policies on abortion are a longstanding topic of heated political debates. The COVID-19 pandemic shook health systems to the core adding further to the complexity of this topic, as imposed national lockdowns and movement restrictions affected access to timely abortion for millions of women across the globe. In this paper, we examine how countries within the European Union and the United Kingdom responded to challenges brought by the COVID-19 crisis in terms of access to abortion. By combining information from various sources, we have explored different responses according to two dimensions: changes in policy and protocols, and reported difficulties in access. Our analysis shows significant differences across the observed regions and salient debates around abortion. While some countries made efforts to maintain and facilitate abortion care during the pandemic through the introduction or expansion of use of telemedicine and early medical abortion, others attempted to restrict it further. The situation was also diverse in the countries where governments did not change policies or protocols. Based on our data analysis, we provide a framework that can help policy makers improve abortion access.     

Uptake of antenatal HIV testing in the United Kingdom: 2000-2003

BACKGROUND: A policy for routine antenatal HIV testing was introduced in England in 1999, with uptake targets for 2000 and 2002; similar policies were subsequently introduced throughout the UK. METHODS: Date of implementation of the policy and data for estimating annual uptake of testing 2000-2003 were collected through postal survey of unit-based obstetric respondents to the National Study of HIV in Pregnancy and Childhood (NSHPC). RESULTS: Implementation date was reported for every unit; uptake data were provided for about three-quarters of implementing units each year. The policy was implemented in 78% (152/195) of English units by end of 2000; 78% (89/114) of units providing data achieved at least 50% uptake that year. By 2002, almost one-third (46/151) of English units reported 90% uptake or more, and over half (84/151) 80%. All but three UK units introduced the policy by the end of 2003, and of those providing adequate uptake data, 38% (66/175) reported at least 90% uptake and 69% (121/175) at least 80%; however, 19% (41/216) of respondents still had difficulty providing adequate data for estimating uptake. CONCLUSIONS: High uptake of HIV testing was reported from most UK units for 2003, but simple, robust and uniform methods for monitoring uptake at local and regional levels are still required.     

浙江省温州市居住5年及以下男男性行为人群艾滋病病毒感染调查

目的 分析浙江省温州市居住≤5年MSM人群HIV感染情况及相关特征。方法 2015年2－10月开展温州市MSM人群HIV感染率相关调查,采用同伴推动抽样法（respondent-driven sampling,RDS）招募年龄≥16岁、在温州市连续居住时间≥3个月、最近12个月内与男性发生肛交和/或口交的男性。问卷调查收集其社会人口学、性行为特征、认知及接受干预检测特征、心理健康状况等信息,采集血标本做HIV抗体和梅毒血清学检测。结果 RDS法共调查454例MSM,居住时间≤5年者多数以≥25岁、初中及以下文化程度、职业为服务行业和工人、个人月收入<4 000元为主,首次同性性行为年龄≥20岁、最近6个月发生同性肛交的较多。总的HIV阳性率为23.7%（108/454）,居住时间≤5年者HIV阳性率为27.3%（73/267）,居住时间>5年者HIV阳性率为18.8%（35/186）（χ²=4.39,P=0.036）。多因素分析结果表明,HIV感染相关因素包括25～68岁者（OR=12.19,95% CI：2.29～65.02）、最近6个月有异性性行为（OR=0.42,95% CI：0.18～0.96）、自评可能感染HIV（OR=0.06,95% CI：0.01～0.95）、自评不可能感染HIV（OR=0.03,95% CI：0.01～0.35）、现症梅毒阳性OR=3.32 （95% CI：1.05～10.52）。结论 在温州市居住≤5年的MSM相比于居住>5年者,HIV阳性率较高,存在较多的高危性行为,需开展针对性的干预措施。     

Tuberculosis among immigrants in the United Kingdom: the role of occupational health services.

Immigrant workers in the United Kingdom account for 7.8% of the working population. Their health problems fall into three groups--imported diseases, occupational accidents, and acquired diseases. In the latter group, tuberculosis is still a major problem. A retrospective study tracing notifiable cases of tuberculosis to points of entry at Heathrow Airport indicates that the majority of immigrants acquire the disease after entry. The occupational health services have a great role to play in detecting the new cases very early and in providing appropriate screening and follow-up. Proper co-ordination between occupational and community health services will give the best results and lead to a rapid decline of the disease.     

Estimating the additional costs of living with a disability in the United Kingdom between 2013 and 2016

The European Journal of Health Economics - In the United Kingdom, more than 20% of the population live with a disability. Past evidence shows that being disabled is associated with functional...     

青年男男性行为人群艾滋病、梅毒感染的流行病学调查

目的 掌握南京地区近5年青年男男性行为人群（young men who have sex with men,YMSM）艾滋病和梅毒感染率,分析YMSM感染人类免疫缺陷病毒（human immunodeficiency virus,HIV）危险因素。方法 利用2013-2017年南京市MSM人群横断面调查研究,筛选其中16~24周岁YMSM调查资料进行分析。结果 纳入调查的YMSM共1 029名。以未婚、汉族和自我认同为同性恋为主,文化程度大专及以上占73.66%。HIV、现症梅毒和既往梅毒总感染率分别为8.65%、4.18%和8.84%,5年间变化趋势均无统计学意义（均有P>0.05）。YMSM通过网络寻找性伴的比例从63.96%上升至73.86%;最近半年发生无保护性肛交（unprotected anal intercourse,UAI）比例从55.86%下降至36.93%,最近一次肛交安全套使用比例从62.00%上升至80.71%,差异均有统计学意义（均有P<0.05）。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,最近半年发生过UAI、YMSM性角色为被插入方和双重角色、现症梅毒感染是YMSM感染HIV的危险因素。结论 南京市YMSM人群HIV和梅毒感染率均处于较高水平,大部分YMSM接受过高等教育,今后应长期持续学校艾滋病性病预防控制综合措施的落实。应积极开发针对YMSM的网络干预措施和方法。坚持使用安全套和及时规范诊疗性病是降低YMSM人群感染HIV的关键措施。     

'HIV is HIV to me': The meanings of treatment,viral load and reinfection for gay men living with HIV

This paper identifies some aspects of the risk management practices of HIV positive gay men in relation to HIV treatments and sexual practice. The paper uses qualitative methods to examine sexual practice and HIV transmission in relation to HIV blood test viral load information. Questions of reinfection with HIV are also examined. Open-ended interviews were conducted with 25 gay and other homosexually active men and analysed for relevant themes. Interviewees spoke of different approaches to risk assessment in relation to viral load and reinfection, drawing on their experiences and advice. This diversity is connected with various risk management 'styles' that reflected positions about HIV transmission risk, the characteristics of the partner and the sexual situation. Some implications for HIV prevention are identified, including the need to address the links between prevention and treatment. HIV prevention strategies will need to address development of education in relation to evolving knowledge about treatment technologies and connections with HIV transmission.     

The linkage between patterns of daily occupations and occupational balance: Applications within occupational science and occupational therapy practice

Patterns of daily occupations (PDO) and occupational balance (OB) are recurring phenomena in the literature. Both are related with health and well-being, which makes them central in occupational therapy practice and occupational science. The aim was to review how PDO and OB are described in the literature, to propose a view of how the two constructs may be linked, and elaborate on how such a view may benefit occupational science and occupational therapy. The literature was analysed by latent and manifest content analysis and comparative analysis. The findings were summarized in a model, framing PDO as the more objective and OB as the more subjective result from an interaction between personal preferences and environmental influences. The proposed model does not assume a cause–effect relationship between the targeted constructs, rather a mutual influence and a joint reaction to influencing factors. Indicators of PDO and OB were identified, as well as tools for assessing PDO and OB. The authors propose that discerning PDO and OB as separate but interacting phenomena may be useful in developing a theoretical discourse in occupational science and enhancing occupational therapy practice. Although the scope of this study was limited, the proposed view may hopefully inspire further scrutiny of constructs.     

Reported incidence of occupational asthma in the United Kingdom, 1989-97

OBJECTIVES—To examine trends in estimated population based incidence of occupational asthma by age, sex, occupation, geographical region, and causal agents based on 9 years of the Surveillance of Work Related and Occupational Respiratory Disease (SWORD) data.
METHODS—In January 1989 the SWORD scheme for the surveillance of occupational respiratory disease was established in the United Kingdom to make good the lack of epidemiological information on the incidence of these diseases in the United Kingdom. Between 80% and 90% of chest and occupational physicians report voluntarily all new cases they see, on a monthly or random sampling basis. During the 9 years 1989-97, an estimated 25 674 new cases of occupational respiratory disease, including 7387 of occupational asthma, were reported. Suspected causal agents were classified into 44 categories and estimated annual incidences of asthma were calculated with denominators from the labour force survey.
RESULTS—Overall, a third of the suspected causes of asthma were organic, a third chemical, 6% metallic, and the rest miscellaneous, or in 8%, unknown. There was evidence of an increase since 1989 in cases due to latex, and possibly glutaraldehyde, and an apparent drop since 1991 in the proportion of cases attributed to isocyanates. Incidences were higher in men than women and the disparity was especially marked in the population aged 45 years or more in which rates for men were at least twice those for women. Average annual rates per million workers for 1992-7 ranged from 7 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 5 to 9) for the lowest risk group of professional, clerical, and service workers to 1464 (95% CI 968 to 2173) for coach and other spray painters. Except for laboratory technicians, all other occupations with rates over 100 were concerned with manufacturing and processing that used chemicals, metals, and organic materials. Incidences were two to three times higher in the north and midlands than in East Anglia and the south. The introduction of a sampling scheme in 1992 doubled estimates of reported incidence of occupational asthma, but there was little evidence of other temporal changes.
CONCLUSIONS—The SWORD scheme has produced consistent estimates of the causes and incidence of occupational asthma as seen by chest and occupational physicians. It has allowed the epidemiology of occupational asthma in the population to be studied and high risk occupations to be identified. There is certainly more occupational asthma in the population than that which reaches specialists in occupational and chest medicine; therefore the incidence rates presented here are underestimates, but by how much remains unknown.


     

Research priorities in occupational medicine: a survey of United Kingdom personnel managers.

A Delphi survey was carried out in an attempt to identify areas of priority in occupational health that should be targeted by research. Previously 53 occupational physicians identified and ranked these areas. These were then assessed by personel managers. There was considerable agreement on priorities between the two groups with musculoskeletal disorders and stress securing the highest ranking.     

Interim guidance: preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in men who have sex with men

An estimated 56,000 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections occur each year in the United States. Men who have sex with men (MSM) account for 53% of the estimated incident infections, and surveillance data suggest that the annual number of new HIV infections among MSM has been rising since the mid-1990s. Strategies for reducing acquisition of HIV infection by MSM have included 1) expanded HIV testing so that infected persons can be treated and their risk for transmitting infection minimized; 2) individual, small-group, and community-level behavioral interventions to reduce risk behaviors; 3) promotion of condom use; 4) detection and treatment of sexually transmitted infections; and 5) mental health and substance abuse counseling when needed. On November 23, 2010, investigators for the Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Initiative (iPrEX) study announced results from a multinational, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III clinical trial of daily oral antiretrovirals (tenofovir disoproxil fumarate [TDF] and emtricitabine [FTC]) to prevent acquisition of HIV infection among uninfected but exposed MSM. This report provides interim guidance to health-care providers based on the reported results of that trial, which indicated that TDF plus FTC taken orally once a day as preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is safe and partially effective in reducing HIV acquisition among MSM when provided with regular monitoring of HIV status and ongoing risk-reduction and PrEP medication adherence counseling.     

A survey of trainees and recently accredited specialists in occupational medicine in the United Kingdom

Information from a study group of doctors training or recentlytrained in occupational medicine was gathered using a self-administeredquestionnaire mailed to each subject's registered address. Ofthe 224 individuals identified from scrutiny of records heldby the Faculty of Occupational Medicine, replies were receivedfrom 181 (81 per cent). Recruitment occurs in broadly equalproportions from general practice, general practice trainees,the hospital sector and the forces, with a wide diversity ofexperience among trainees. On average, trainees experience atleast two industrial sectors during their training. There weredisappointingly small numbers in part-time training.