Heavy Metal Concentration in Largehead Hairtail (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichiurus lepturus</Emphasis> Linneaus, 1758) and Savalai Hairtail (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lepturacanthus savala</Emphasis> (Cuvier, 1829)) Obtained from Karachi Fish Harbour,Pakistan

In this study, muscle samples gathered from Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus Linneaus, 1758) and Savali hairtail [Lepturacanthus savala (Cuvier, 1829)] from the Karachi Fish Harbour, Pakistan were analyzed to determine heavy metal concentrations (iron [Fe], zinc [Zn], copper [Cu], manganese [Mn], lead [Pb] and cadmium [Cd]) between January and December 2016. All samples were analyzed using the AAnalyst 700 Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. It was observed that the average measured level of Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Pb and Cd in muscle were 77.72?±?47.84 µg/g, 20.34?±?8.49 µg/g, 2.23?±?1.16 µg/g, 0.57?±?0.36 µg/g, 0.20?±?0.16 µg/g and 0.42?±?0.19 µg/g for T. lepturus, respectively. Besides, the average level of the same metal concentrations in muscle for L. savala were 85.11?±?57.64 µg/g, 16.63?±?9.25 µg/g, 2.53?±?1.90 µg/g, 0.47?±?0.27 µg/g, 0.23?±?0.18 µg/g and 0.47?±?0.20 µg/g, respectively. The correlation between size groups and metal accumulation in muscle tissues were investigated for both fish. In terms of public risk assessment, the provisional tolerable weekly intake’s of various heavy metals were compared with the consumption of both fish. As a result of the analysis, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Pb and Cd accumulations in muscle tissues of T. lepturus and L. savala collected from Karachi Fish Harbour Pakistan did not exceed limit values.     

Trace Metal Inference on Seaweeds in Wandoor Area,Southern Andaman Island

Trace metals concentrations were studied for three different seasons on four seaweed species (Halimeda gracilis, Padina pavonica, Sargassum swartzii and Turbinaria ornata) from Wandoor area of southern Andaman Island. Though diversified seaweed population records in the study area, the studied four species were predominantly present in all the seasons. The observed average levels on trace metals concentrations were Cd?0–0.311 µg/g, Cr?0.002–0.334 µg/g, Cu?0.003–0.291 µg/g, Mn?0.118–7.736 µg/g, Pb?0–0.165 µg/g and Zn?0.019–5.537 µg/g respectively. Brown seaweed P. pavonica showed higher level of Mn concentration as 7.73 µg/g during northeast monsoon reflects physiological properties and sequestrative nature. Our result suggests, the metal concentrations were not higher with reference to Dadolahi’s metal pollution index. Based on univariate analysis of variance, there is no significant variation found in both species and seasons. To maintain the tradition of the study area, continues monitoring is essential for better understanding and ecosystem conservation.     

Heavy Metal Contamination in the Cultivated Oyster <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crassostrea rivularis</Emphasis> and Associated Health Risks from a Typical Mariculture Zone in the South China Sea

With the rapid development of mariculture in potentially contaminated regions in China and the world, food safety, is a growing concern. To evaluate heavy metals and their associated health risks in the cultivated oyster Crassostrea rivularis, the concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn) in oysters and water/sediment were examined in a typical mariculture environment (Kaozhou Bay, South China Sea). Trends in the seasonal dynamics of heavy metals in oysters revealed a potential synergistic effects among the concentrations of Cd, Cr, and Zn; trends associated with Pb were less clear, although the ability of oysters to bioaccumulate and depurate Pb was excellent. Bioconcentration factors (BCF) indicated that C. rivularis has a strong ability to accumulate heavy metals, and the BCF was the highest for Zn (2.32?×?10⁵), followed by Cd (6.84?×?10⁴), Pb (2.77?×?10⁴) and Cr (1.23?×?10³) through the four seasons. Results showed that Cd concentrations in oysters could pose a risk to human health (HQ?>?1). This study, therefore, suggests that there are potential human health risks due to heavy metal exposure through the consumption of C. rivularis from mariculture zones in South China Sea.     

Heavy Metal Contamination and Ecological Risk Assessment of Swine Manure Irrigated Vegetable Soils in Jiangxi Province,China

Heavy metal are often added to animal fodder and accumulate in the soils with swine manure. In this study, heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, As and Cr) concentrations were determined in agricultural soils irrigated with swine manure in Jiangxi Province, China. Results showed that the average concentrations of Cu, Zn, As and Cr (32.8, 93.7, 21.3 and 75.8 mg/kg, respectively) were higher than the background values, while Pb and Cd (15.2 and 0.090 mg/kg, respectively) were lower than the background values. Contamination factors \(\left( {C_{f}^{i}} \right)\) indicated that they were generally moderate for Cu, Zn, As and Cr and generally low for Pb and Cd. The contamination degree (C _d ) was calculated to be 7.5–10.0 indicating a moderate degree of contamination. The geoaccumulation index (I_geo) indicated that the soils were unpolluted with Zn, Cd and Pb, while unpolluted to moderately pollute with Cr, Cu and As. The single ecological risk factor \(\left( {E_{r}^{i}} \right)\) revealed that the six heavy metals all belonged to low ecological risk. The ecological risk indices suggested that all the sampling sites were at low risk level.     

Influence of a Former Mining Area in the Heavy Metals Concentrations in Blood of Free-Living Mediterranean Pond Turtles (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mauremys leprosa</Emphasis>)

The objective of this study was to assess metal exposure in the Mediterranean Pond Turtle (Mauremys leprosa) inhabiting a watercourse in an ancient mining district polluted by different metals (“Rambla de Las Moreras”, southeastern Spain) and included in the Ramsar Convention. For this purpose, mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) were analysed in blood samples from 42 M. leprosa healthy adults (27 males and 13 females). The highest median concentrations were found for Zn, followed by Cu, Pb, Hg and Cd (366, 33, 9, 0.83 and 0.14 µg/dL, respectively). Although the literature regarding toxic metals in freshwater turtles is relatively scarce, Pb may cause deleterious effects in our population. In general, males presented higher levels than females, which could be due to maternal transfer during egg formation. The significant correlations between Cu–Cd and Cu–Hg suggest the implication of an efficient mechanism of detoxification involving metallothioneins.     

Uptake and Distribution of Trace Elements in Dominant Mangrove Plants of the Indian Sundarban Wetland

Absorption, accumulation and translocation of 12 trace elements in nine dominant mangrove plants in the Indian Sundarban Wetland revealed both organ-specific and site-specific characteristics. An overall enrichment of elements was recorded in rhizosediment, exceeding the prescribed effects range-low (ER-L) of consensus based sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) for Cu and Pb. Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, Ceriops decandra and Excoecaria agallocha exhibited unique potential for accumulating Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn and Zn and could be considered efficient accumulators. Maximum element accumulation in trunk bark (As 6.16, Cr 49.9, Co 2.67, Cu 91.00 and Zn 85.5 mg kg^?1) and root/pneumatophore (Al 1000 and Fe 2430 mg kg^?1) was recorded. Maximum bioconcentration factor (6.23) in A. officinalis and translocation factor (17.5 for Mn) in C. decandra distinguished their phytoremediation capacity. These halophytes could be used for trace element phytoremediation in stressed sites of Sundarban.     

Appraisal of Heavy Metals in Groundwater in Chennai City Using a HPI Model

Heavy metal contamination in Chennai city was evaluated using a heavy metal pollution index (HPI) model in conjunction with the spatial distribution maps. Metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in the groundwater were determined using standard methods and the resultant data was utilized in the development of a HPI model. The metal concentrations showed a dominance in the order of Zn > Cu > Cr > Pb > Cd respectively. About 14.3 % of the samples (n = 2), exhibited high HPI (>38) and the highest value, HPI = 97.55, has been recorded from Thiruvanmiyur area. Statistical analysis revealed a positive correlation between metals such as Cd and Cr (r = 0.606), Cd and Cu (r = 0.601), Cr and Cu (r = 0.464) and Pb and Zn (r = 0.416), suggested their common origin. The spatial distribution maps of heavy metals and the HPI suggested that the SW region, especially Adyar and Thiruvanmiyur regions are highly contaminated with the metals. Industrialisation and improper waste dumping were identified as the major cause for the accumulation of metals in the groundwater of Chennai city.     

Tissue Distribution of Metals in White-fronted Geese and Spot-Billed Ducks from Korea

This study presents concentrations of Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb and Cd in livers, kidneys, muscles and bones of white-fronted geese Anser albifrons (geese) and spot-billed ducks Anas poecilorhyncha (ducks). Iron in livers, kidneys and muscles, Zn in muscles, Mn and Cd in every tissue, Cu in livers, muscles and bones and Pb in bones differed between species, and there were significant differences among tissues in both species. Essential elements such as Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu concentrations were within the background levels. Lead concentrations in livers of 7 of 14 geese and 7 of 19 ducks and in bones of 4 of 19 ducks exceeded background concentrations for waterfowl (5 μg/g dw for the liver, 10 μg/g dw for the bone). Almost all samples of both species had the background Cd concentrations in the liver (33 of 33 geese and ducks) and kidney (14 geese and 18 ducks). Tissue concentrations of Cd were greater in geese than ducks. In contrast, tissue concentrations of Pb in bones were greater in ducks than in geese. These different trends for Cd and Pb reflect a short and/or long term difference in exposure and degree of accumulation of these metals.     

Relationships of Metals Between Feathers and Diets of Black-Tailed Gull (Larus crassirostris) Chicks

In birds, metal contaminants in feathers are influenced by prey concentrations and environmental quality. In Black-tailed Gull chicks, Cd, Pb and Cu concentrations were strongly correlated between feathers and stomach contents. Between feathers and livers, Pb, Zn and Fe concentrations were significantly correlated. Cd concentrations were within the range of other seabirds and within the background level for bird feathers (<2 μg/g dw). At the lighthouse, eight chicks exceeded the background for Pb level in feathers (>4 μg/g dw). Elevated Pb concentrations might be attributed to ingestion of paint-based chips and natural (soil and rocks) sources. There is evidence that the analyzed birds suffered from acute toxicity, including high levels of pecking from conspecifics and increased mortality from elevated Pb levels. It seems likely that these birds might experience negative health effects from this increased Pb exposure. As a result, Black-tailed Gull chick feathers are a very useful monitoring tool for assessing Cd, Pb and Cu contamination. Essential elements such as Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu were all within the acceptable range of normal concentrations for seabird species including gulls and may be maintained by normal homeostatic mechanisms.     

Trace Element Concentrations in European Pond Turtles (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Emys orbicularis</Emphasis>) from Brenne Natural Park,France

We assessed trace elements concentration in European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) from Brenne Natural Park (France). We sampled road-killed turtles (N?=?46) to measure the concentrations of 4 non-essential (Ag, Cd, Hg, and Pb) and 10 essential (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Se, V, and Zn) elements in muscle, skin, liver and claws. Body size or sex did not influence the concentrations of most elements; except for Hg (liver, skin and claws) and Zn (muscle) which increased with body size. We found relatively high concentrations of Hg and Zn, possibly linked to fish farming. This result deserves future investigations to evaluate possible ecotoxicological effects on E. orbicularis.     

A Preliminary Investigation on Metal Bioaccumulation by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perenniporia fraxinea</Emphasis>

The lignicolous macrofungus Perenniporia fraxinea has drawn increased attention due to its role as a pathogen of ornamentals in urban sites. The present study investigated the bioaccumulation of heavy metals by P. fraxinea. Sporophores were collected from urban and suburban areas in Pavia (Northern Italy) and analyzed for metals content (Cd, Hg, Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, after microwave acidic digestion. On the basis of the obtained results the potential bioaccumulation capability of P. fraxinea was investigated. The isolates were grown in a culture medium enriched with different concentrations of Cd and Hg, chosen as probes of environmental pollution, and Cu for comparison. As P. fraxinea grows in the presence of Cd, Hg and Cu, it seems to be a potential tool in environmental monitoring.     

DNA Alterations Triggered by Environmentally Relevant Polymetallic Concentrations in Marine Clams Ruditapes philippinarum and Polychaete Worms Hediste diversicolor

We exposed marine clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) and aquatic worms (Hediste diversicolor) to environmentally relevant concentrations of two metal mixtures each containing three divalent metals [(C₁ in µg/L) cadmium (Cd) 1, mercury (Hg) 0.1, and lead (Pb) 4] and [C₂ in µg/L) Cd 17, Hg 1.1, and Pb 55]. Animals collected in the Arcachon Bay were exposed for 8 days in microcosms made up of a mixed biotope consisting of a water column and natural marine sediment both taken up from the Arcachon Bay. Bioaccumulation analysis showed a significant increase of Cd, Hg, and Pb in clams, particularly at C₂ concentration in the water column reaching, in soft body, 2.3 ± 0.3 µg Cd/g, 0.7 ± 0.2 µg Hg/g, and 45 µg Pb/g dry weight (dw). DNA alterations and upregulation of the cox1 mitochondrial gene were also observed in clam gill after exposure to the metal blend. For worms exposed to the C₂ metal blend, DNA alterations and significant increase of Cd and Hg concentrations were observed reaching 0.5 ± 0.1 µg Cd/g and 2 ± 0.6 µg Hg/g dw.     

Spatial and Seasonal Distribution of Trace Metal Concentrations in Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Sediment of Bosphorus and Golden Horn

The Golden Horn Estuary and Bosphorus Strait are two major marine environments of metropolitan Istanbul which have been exposed to intensive industrial discharges for more than 50 years. In the present study, concentrations of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) were measured in mussel tissue and sediment samples by using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy to assess the current status of metal pollution in the Golden Horn and Bosphorus Strait. Ranges of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations in soft parts of the mussels were BDL-2.59; BDL-7.35; 3.96–20.90; BDL-10.0; and 124.8–293.2 μg g^?1 dry weight (dw), respectively, while the ranges of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in <63 μm sediment fractions were BDL, 19.5–300.3, 16.9–724.7, 10.5–260.9, and 39.3–793.1 μg g^?1 dw, respectively. Ranges of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in >63 μm sediment fractions were BDL, 4.73–52.81, 3.45–481.87, 3.13–174.67 and 10.7–241.2 μg g^?1 dw, respectively. Trace metal concentrations found in sediment of the Golden Horn were 5–10 times higher than average literature values obtained in Mediterranean marine environment, whereas those of the Bosphorus Strait were consistent with or slightly higher than average literature values.     

Transplanted Moss <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hylocomium splendens</Emphasis> as a Bioaccumulator of Trace Elements from Different Categories of Sampling Sites in the Upper Silesia Area (SW Poland): Bulk and Dry Deposition Impact

Concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, K, Fe, Mn, Pb, V and Zn in transplants of Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Schimp. were compared with bulk deposition and dust samples from three different categories of sites: industrial, residential and their surroundings and rural (15 in total). Mosses were transplanted for 90 days to severely polluted areas of Upper Silesia, and samples of precipitation and dust were collected during the same period. Most of the significant correlations between element concentrations in mosses and bulk deposition (Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn) were found for industrial sites. In this study dry deposition carried higher element concentrations than bulk deposition, which may result in the higher passive capture of particulate matter by mosses.     

Changes in Metal Availability and Improvements in Microbial Properties After Phytoextraction of a Cd,Zn and Pb Contaminated Soil

Assessing the effects of phytoextraction on soil properties is important for successful implementation of this method. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of phytoextraction by Sedum alfredii Hance on the availability of metals and improvement of the microbial community (biomass and structure) of a Cd, Zn and Pb contaminated soil. Phytoextraction significantly decreased the acid extractable, Mn/Fe oxide and organic matter bound fractions of Cd and Zn as well as the acid extractable Pb in the rhizosphere soil. Soil microbial biomass, total, bacterial, actinomycete, fungal, AM fungal, and protozoa phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) were significantly enhanced. The ratio of fungal to bacterial and gram-positive to gram-negative bacterial PLFAs were significantly changed. Redundancy analysis showed that microbial biomass and specific groups of PLFAs were negatively correlated with available metals while positively correlated with dissolved organic carbon/organic acids. In conclusion, phytoextraction by S. alfredii reduced available metal concentrations and improved soil microbial properties.     

Assessment of Cr,Ni and Pb Pollution in Rural Agricultural Soils of Tonalite–Trondjhemite Series in Central India

Chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) contamination was investigated in wheat cultivated rain-fed and irrigated rural agricultural soils (n?=?31) of Tonalite–Trondjhemite Series in Central India. The soil sampling was carried out by using stratified random sampling method. The mean concentrations of Cr, Ni and Pb were 54.8, 38.1 and 68.9 mg/kg, respectively. The average values of enrichment factor (EF), geoaccumulation index (I _geo ) and contamination factor (CF) followed the order as: Pb?>?Ni?>?Cr. Distribution patterns of soil parent material and weathering processes govern mineral enrichments, irrespective of rainfed or irrigated agricultural practices. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed strong loading of Cr and Ni (PC1) and Pb and clay (PC3). The strong loading on Cr and Ni indicates soils are originating from basic and volcanic rocks in the study area. The strong loading of Pb and clay indicates Pb is strongly adsorbed on clay minerals and Fe-oxides. The cancer risk (CR) index showed negligible carcinogenic risk to the residing population. However, hazard index (HI) values for children exceed the safe limit (HI?>?1) for Cr and Pb. Spatial distribution of pollution load index suggest highest pollution in the northeastern part of the district. The study revealed that geogenically enriched soils of the area are suitable for agricultural activities under present conditions.     

Elemental Composition of Plant Species from an Abandoned Tungsten Mining Area: Are They Useful for Biogeochemical Exploration and/or Phytoremediation Purposes?

We aimed to evaluate the elemental (W, Mo, Zn, Fe, Cu, Co, Bi, Mn, Cd, Cr, As) composition of some plant species spread around the abandoned tungsten mining area of Uluda? Mountain. The plant species tested were Anthemis cretica and Trisetum flavescens which are grown in this area and they are pioneer species on these contaminated sites. W levels in soils were found up to 1378.6 ± 672.3 mg/kg dry weight in contaminated areas. The leaf W contents of the selected plant species were found 41.1 ± 24.4 and 31.1 ± 15.5 mg/kg dry weight for A. cretica and T. flavescens, respectively. Our results indicate that the elemental composition of species changed by the increased tungsten and some element concentrations in soil without detrimental effect. So, these species can be useful tungsten removal and some elements from contaminated sites.     

Concentrations of Metals in Blood and Feathers of Nestling Ospreys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pandion haliaetus</Emphasis>) in Chesapeake and Delaware Bays

In 2000, 2001, and 2002, blood and feather samples were collected from 40–45-day-old nestling ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) from Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay and River. Concentrations of 18 metals, metalloids, and other elements were determined in these samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy, and Hg concentrations were measured by cold vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy. When compared to concurrent reference areas (South, West, and Rhode Rivers), mean As and Hg concentrations in blood were greater (p < 0.05) in two of three Chesapeake Bay regions of concern (Baltimore Harbor [As: 1.18 vs. 0.548 μg/g dw], Anacostia River [Hg: 0.305 vs. 0.178 μg/g dw], and Elizabeth River [As: 0.876 vs. 0.663 μg/g dw; Hg: 0.260 vs. 0.180 μg/g dw]). Lead was detected more frequently in blood of nestlings from the highly industrialized Elizabeth River compared to the rural reference area. When compared to the concurrent reference area, mean Al, Ba, Hg, Mn, and Pb concentrations in feathers were substantially greater (p < 0.05) in one or more Chesapeake regions of concern (Anacostia River [Al: 206 vs. 62.1 μg/g dw; Ba: 3.31 vs. 0.823 μg/g dw; Mn: 65.4 vs. 22.9 μg/g dw] and Elizabeth River [Al: 165 vs. 63.5 μg/g dw; Hg: 1.24 vs. 0.599 μg/g dw; Pb 1.47 vs. 0.543 μg/g dw]). When compared to the coastal Inland Bays reference area, feathers of nestlings from northern Delaware Bay and River had greater concentrations (p < 0.05) of Ba (1.90 vs. 0.660 μg/g dw), Fe (258 vs. 109 μg/g dw), Mn (18.5 vs. 4.66 μg/g dw), Mo (0.130 vs. 0.040 μg/g dw), Pb (1.96 vs. 0.624 μg/g dw), and V (0.671 vs. 0.325 μg/g dw), presumably due to extensive metal-working and petroleum refinery activities. Concentrations of Hg in nestling feathers from Delaware were frequently greater than in the Chesapeake. The present findings and those of related reproductive studies suggest that concentrations of several heavy metals (e.g., Cd, Hg, Pb) in nestling blood and feathers from Chesapeake and Delaware Bays were below toxicity thresholds and do not seem to be affecting chick survival during the nestling period. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Concentrations of Cadmium,Copper, and Zinc in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macrobrachium rosenbergii</Emphasis> (Giant Freshwater Prawn) from Natural Environment

This study analyzed the levels of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) by the flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (FAAS), in the muscle tissues, exoskeletons, and gills from freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) (n?=?20) harvested from natural habitat in Kerang River, Malaysia on 25th November 2015. Significant increase of the metals level in muscle tissue and gill (r?>?0.70, p?<?0.05) were observed with increase in length except for Cu in gills. No relationship was found between metals level in exoskeleton and length. The concentrations of Cd, Cu and Zn were significantly higher (p?<?0.05) in males (muscle tissues and exoskeleton) except for Cd in exoskeleton. In gills, only Cu was significantly higher (p?<?0.05) in female than male. All samples contained metals below the permissible limit for human consumption (i.e., Cd?<?2.00 mg/kg; Cu?<?30.00 mg/kg; Zn?<?150 mg/kg). Annual metals monitoring in prawn and environmental samples is recommended to evaluate changes of metals bioaccumulation and cycling in the system, which is useful for resources management.     

Manganese Concentrations in Tissues and Skin of Three Dolphin Species Stranded in the Croatian Waters of the Adriatic Sea from 1995 to 2013

Manganese concentrations were determined in muscle, kidney, liver, spleen, lung and fat tissues and skin of three cetacean species, the bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus), striped (Stenella coeruleoalba) and Risso’s (Grampus griseus) dolphins, stranded along the Croatian Adriatic coast between 1995 and 2013. Mean ranges determined in tissues were (mg/kg, ww): muscle 0.23–0.27, liver 2.87–4.00, kidney 0.66–1.26, spleen 0.37–0.79, lung 0.18–0.57, skin 0.11–0.97, fat 0.06–0.42. The highest Mn mean levels in tissues were measured in species (mg/kg, ww): T. truncates lung 0.41, skin 0.97, fat 0.42; S. coeruleoalba muscle 0.26; G. griseus kidney 1.26, liver 4.00, spleen 0.64. Significant differences of Mn concentrations in the liver (p?=?0.034), spleen (p?=?0.037) and skin (p?=?0.013) were found among the three dolphin species. Significant differences in Mn levels were found between young and adult T. truncates in kidney (p?=?0.042), lung (p?=?0.0040) and skin (p?=?0.0034).