Chondrocyte death by apoptosis is associated with the initiation and severity of articular cartilage degradation

Aim: To investigate the role of chondrocyte apoptosis in the initiation and severity of articular cartilage (AC) damage. Methods: Articular cartilage from equine metacarpophalangeal (MCP) (n = 13) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) (n = 16) joints was used and each graded macroscopically for cartilage degradation (macroscopic osteoarthritis [OA] grade). Cartilage was sampled from six regions on the articular surface of both joint types and graded using a ‘modified’ Mankin scoring system. Apoptosis of chondrocytes in cartilage sections was assessed by expression of active caspase‐3 using indirect immunohistochemistry. Results: Apoptosis was found to increase significantly with macroscopic OA grade (P < 0.0001). There was a significant trend for increasing ‘modified’ Mankin score with increasing macroscopic OA grade (P < 0.0009). Apoptosis was significantly higher in the superficial zone than in the middle or deep zones (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively). The incidence of apoptosis correlated significantly with the early stages of microscopic cartilage damage (‘modified’ Mankin scores 0–3). Significant differences in overall apoptosis were noted when cartilage specimens with a ‘modified’ Mankin score of 3 were compared to grade 2 (P < 0.001), grade 1 (P < 0.001) and grade 0 (P < 0.05) specimens. However, no significant difference in overall apoptosis was noted between grade 3, 4 and 5 samples. Conclusions: The positive correlations of chondrocyte apoptosis with early stages of OA and severity of cartilage damage in the joints, suggest that this process is intrinsically linked to cartilage damage and may be associated with the initiation of cartilage degradation in OA.     

Chondrocyte apoptosis determined by caspase-3 expression varies with fibronectin distribution in equine articular cartilage

Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate associations between the extent of chondrocyte apoptosis and expression of the articular cartilage (AC) extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) and fibronectin. Method: Cartilage from four sites (when available) on equine left middle carpal joints (n = 12) were used. Expression of COMP and fibronectin was determined using specific polyclonal antibodies and a biotin‐streptavidin/peroxidase method. The intensity of staining for matrix molecules was graded (none, mild, moderate, strong) in each cartilage zone. Apoptosis of chondrocytes in AC sections was assessed by their expression of active caspase‐3 using immunohistochemistry. Results: The intensity of fibronectin expression varied significantly according to cartilage depth, with greater expression in the deep zone than in either the superficial or middle layers (P < 0.001). A significant positive association was found overall between intensity of fibronectin expression and chondrocyte apoptosis (r = 0.44, P = 0.0187). The data were also significant for superficial and deep zones (r = 0.44, P = 0.0239 and r = 0.42, P = 0.0279 respectively). Conversely, intensity of COMP expression did not show zonal differences and was un‐associated with degree of apoptosis. However, COMP expression was significantly more intense in cartilage than fibronectin (P = 0.0007), and the correlation between overall intensity of COMP and fibronectin was statistically significant (r = 0.56, P = 0.0018). Conclusion: The positive correlation between the incidence of apoptosis and expression of fibronectin, a key ECM molecule involved in communication between the chondrocyte and surrounding matrix, suggests that chondrocyte death by apoptosis may alter cartilage metabolism, supporting the role of this process in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis.     

Aspirin aggravates the degeneration of canine joint cartilage caused by immobilization

The effect of aspirin on the degeneration of knee cartilage caused by immobilization was examined. If dogs were fed aspirin daily (serum salicylate = 20–25 mg/dl) for 6 weeks while one hind limb was immobilized in a cast, the decreases in uronic acid content and net proteoglycan synthesis in cartilage from the immobilized knee were significantly greater than the decreases in cartilage from immobilized knees of dogs that had not received aspirin (P<0.01). Furthermore, neither aspirin administration nor immobilization alone affected the extractability of proteoglycans from the cartilage. However, in organ cultures of cartilage from the immobilized knee of dogs fed aspirin, the proportion of the total ³⁵S-proteoglycans present in the culture medium was nearly twice that from cultures of cartilage of the contralateral knee. Also, more than twice as many of the total tissue proteoglycans (uronic acid) were extractable with 0.4M guanidinium chloride, a nondissociating solvent (P<0.01). Regardless of whether the dogs received aspirin, the in vitro interaction of proteoglycans with hyaluronic acid from cartilage of the immobilized knee was diminished, apparently due to an abnormality in the hyaluronate-binding region of the core protein. Although these results indicate that aspirin had an adverse effect in vivo on articular cartilage of immobilized joints, aspirin administration did not preclude reversal of all of the above changes if the dog was allowed to walk about in a pen for 3 weeks after cast removal. If, however, the dog was run daily on a treadmill for 3 weeks after cast removal, the decrease in uronic acid content in cartilage from the immobilized knee persisted and was more profound if the animal had received aspirin than if it had not (P<0.01).     

Chondrocyte number and proteoglycan synthesis in the aging and osteoarthritic human articular cartilage

OBJECTIVE: To correlate the number of chondrocytes in healthy and osteoarthritic human articular cartilage with age, and to evaluate the influence of donor age on total proteoglycan synthesis. METHODS: Chondrocytes were isolated from human articular cartilage derived from hip joints with and without osteoarthritic lesions. The cell number was normalised to cartilage sample wet weight. In addition, the influence of age on chondrocyte numbers was assessed histomorphometrically. Chondrocytes were grown as monolayer cultures for seven days in a chemically defined serum-free basal medium. Total proteoglycan synthesis was measured by [(35)S]sulphate incorporation into newly synthesised macromolecules. RESULTS: Chondrocyte numbers in healthy cartilage decreased significantly with advancing age (r = -0.69, p<0.0001). In contrast to healthy specimens, chondrocyte numbers were decreased in osteoarthritic cartilage irrespective of and unrelated to age, and differed markedly, by an average of 38%, from the cell numbers found in healthy individuals (p<0.0001). Regarding synthesis of matrix macromolecules, no dependence on patients' age, either in healthy or in osteoarthritic specimens, could be observed. CONCLUSIONS: Under the experimental conditions employed, chondrocytes from healthy and osteoarthritic joints synthesised comparable amounts of cartilage macromolecules, independent of age or underlying osteoarthritic disease. Thus the decrease in chondrocyte number in aging and osteoarthritic joints could be a crucial factor in limiting tissue replenishment.     

Enhancement of cartilage matrix protein synthesis in arthritic cartilage

Objective. To investigate whether the synthesis of cartilage matrix protein (CMP) is enhanced in arthritic cartilage. Methods. The content of CMP in human and pig cartilage was determined by immunoblotting, and CMP-producing chondrocytes in osteoarthritic (OA) and rheumatoid arthritic (RA) joints were immunostained. Results. CMP was undetectable in the condylar cartilage and disc of pigs, whereas it was abundant in the rib and tracheal cartilage of the same animals. By immunohistochemical analysis, CMP was localized in only a few chondrocytes (5%) in normal human joints, whereas numerous chondrocytes (>60%) were immunostained in RA joints. The number of CMP-producing cells was also increased in OA cartilage (>40%). Immunoblotting analyses confirmed that the CMP content in the cartilage from OA and RA patients was much higher than that in normal cartilage. Conclusion. These findings demonstrate that articular chondrocytes can synthesize CMP, although it is suppressed under physiologic conditions. The results also suggest that articular chondrocytes express CMP in response to arthritic stimuli.     

实验性蛋白多糖降解致兔膝关节软骨早期退变的核磁共振成像研究

目的　探讨低场磁共振成像 (MRI)在检测骨关节炎 (OA)早期软骨退变的表现及其价值。方法　选用新西兰大白兔 32只 ,右侧膝关节腔内注射 0 1ml木瓜蛋白酶溶液 (5U) ,建立OA早期软骨退变的动物模型。并在注药前及注药后 2 4、4 8、72h行双侧膝关节矢状面GE准T2 WI、SE T1WI、SE PDWI、SE T2 WI序列成像 ,取关节软骨组织作蛋白多糖含量测定和组织病理学检查。结果　注射木瓜蛋白酶后 2 4、4 8h ,关节软骨明显变薄 ,磁共振 (MR)信号强度明显降低。与对照组比较 ,两者差异均有显著性 (P <0 0 5 )。至注药后 72h关节软骨的厚度及信号强度已基本恢复正常。与对照组比较 ,两者差异无显著性 (P >0 0 5 )。关节软骨蛋白多糖含量测定及组织学检查结果表明 ,注射木瓜蛋白酶后 2 4、4 8h ,蛋白多糖含量明显降低 ,至注药后 72h ,蛋白多糖含量已逐渐恢复。软骨细胞均未见异常改变。结论　通过MR检查 ,可发现早期的软骨退变。     

The effects of interleukin-1 on articular cartilage destruction as observed in arthritic diseases, and its therapeutic control

At present there is substantial evidence to suggest that interleukin 1 (IL-1) may act as a key mediator in the normal physiologic regulation of cartilage as well as in the pathogenesis of cartilage destruction in arthritic disorders. IL-1 induces stimulation of chondrocyte catabolism and alters chondrocyte biosynthesis in articular cartilage. These actions of IL-1 may lead to destruction and inappropriate repair following degradation of the cartilage matrix. Moreover, IL-1 induced biological activities in chondrocytes may be influenced by growth factors (e.g. fibroblast growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta), guanine nucleotide proteins, or other cytokines. With respect to the widely suggested potential significance of IL-1 in arthritis, pharmacological control of IL-1 action is of important clinical relevance. Today the therapeutic control of IL-1 induced effects in articular cartilage destruction as observed in arthritic diseases can be divided into drugs which affect IL-1 production, drugs which modify or block the IL-1 effect before stimulation of the target cell, or drugs that interfere with the IL-1 induced effects, e.g. steroidal drugs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, immunoregulatory drugs or class-specific proteinase inhibitors. However, these drugs do not specifically block IL-1 activity. For the development of therapeutic agents capable of specifically blocking IL-1 effects, a better understanding of IL-1 induced activities is needed. In conclusion, knowledge about chondrocyte metabolic and regulatory alterations would be beneficial in unraveling the events that take place in arthritic diseases and would favor therapeutic research for agents that might arrest the progressive destruction of articular cartilage in pathological conditions.     

Polymorphonuclear leukocyte adhesion to articular cartilage is inhibited by cartilage surface macromolecules

The present studies deal with polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) adhesion inhibitory properties of cartilage surface proteoglycans. Normal human PMN were used in adhesion experiments with bovine cartilage surfaces exposed to neutrophil elastase and reconstituted with fibronectin (Fn) or on plastic-bound Fn. An extract of cartilage surface small proteoglycans (SE) and purified fibromodulin (FM), decorin (DCN), biglycan (BGN), and aggrecan (AGN) on the surface of normal cartilage were used to test for inhibition of Fn-dependent cell adhesion. The PMN did not adhere to intact articular cartilage surfaces, whereas significant adhesion was measured using cartilage explants digested with elastase and reconstituted with Fn. Incubation of elastase-treated, Fn-reconstituted cartilage with 45 microg/ml SE inhibited PMN adhesion by 50.7 +/- 5.8% (P < 0.0001). Addition of 50 microg/ml purified FM to the reconstituted articular surfaces inhibited cell adhesion by 71.2 +/- 13.9% (P < 0.0001). Inhibition of PMN adhesion to plastic-bound Fn was seen with 1.7 microg/ml SE (20.4 +/- 8.0%). Maximal inhibition of 67.4 +/- 14.8% (P < 0.01) was obtained with 17.0 microg/ml SE. With FM, concentrations of 4.3 microg/ml resulted in 34.7 25.2 inhibition (P < 0.001), and maximal inhibition of 66.3 16.2% (P < 0.01) was obtained with 43.0 microg/ml. Similar results were obtained with purified bovine DCN and BGN. The main component of cartilage matrix, AGN, failed to inhibit cell adhesion significantly. The results indicate that macromolecules normally present on articular cartilage surfaces act as a barrier to PMN adhesion. Since cartilage surface proteins are susceptible to breakdown by proteases from synovial fluid inflammatory cells, we postulate that the degradation of this barrier may be responsible for increasing PMN adhesion and subsequent cartilage damage in inflammatory arthritis.     

Melatonin enhances cartilage matrix synthesis by porcine articular chondrocytes

Abstract:  To develop a minimally invasive preventive measure for early osteoarthritis, the effect of melatonin on cartilage matrix synthesis of articular chondrocytes was evaluated in vitro in a pellet culture system. The chondrogenic markers were assessed using histology, TaqMan^® polymerase chain reaction, and western blot. Our results show that melatonin treatment yielded chondrocyte-pellets with a higher expression of chondrogenic markers consisting of collagen II, Sox 9, and aggrecan at both the mRNA and protein levels. A hypertrophic marker, collagen X, remained low. Moreover, up-regulation of internal transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-β1) expression was observed in the melatonin-treated cells. Our data indicate, for the first time, that the administration of melatonin enhances cartilage matrix synthesis of articular chondrocytes in a serum-containing pellet culture system, likely through the TGF-β signal pathway. Melatonin may prove to be a highly valuable addition to current therapeutic models for degenerative cartilage repair.     

茶多酚对饮茶型氟中毒大鼠关节软骨氧化损伤的保护作用

目的 探讨茶多酚对饮茶型氟中毒大鼠关节软骨的氧化应激损伤的保护作用.方法 120只雄性Wistar大鼠按体质量随机分为6组:对照组、加氟组、氟+茶多酚组、氟+铝组、氟+铝+茶多酚组和砖茶组.加氟组每日饮用含氟(F-)100.00 mg/L的氟化钠(NaF)水溶液;氟+茶多酚组每日饮用含F-100 mg/L、茶多酚10.0 g/L的水溶液;氟+铝组每日饮用含F-100.00 mg/L、铝(Al3+)200.00 mg/L的水溶液;氟+铝+茶多酚组同时饮用含有上述3种物质的水溶液:砖茶组饮用砖茶沏制而成的砖茶水(F- 100.00 mg/L、Al3+215.00mg/L、9.2 g/L);对照组饮用自来水(F- 0.33 mg/L).连续饲养3个月,处死动物,检测血清中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)、戊二醛(MDA)、一氧化氮(NO)和细胞因子白介素1β(IL-1β)、白介素6(IL-6)的水平;RT-PCR和免疫组化法检测关节软骨中诱生型一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)mRNA及蛋白表达.结果 氟 +铝+茶多酚组SOD水平[(664.009±29.589)kU/L]与加氟组、氟+销组[(625.328±27.199)、(652.282±13.926)kU/L]比较有升高趋势,但是差异无统计学意义(P均>0.05);氟+茶多酚组、氟+铝+茶多酚组、砖茶组T-AOC水平[(10.874±0.721)、(11.871±0.941)、(10.380±2.747)kU/L]与加氟组、氟+铝组[(8.849±1.887)(8.210±1.740)kU/L]比较,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05);氟+铝+茶多酚组血清中MDA水平[(3.235±0.446)μmol/L]与加氟组、氟+铝组[(3.889±0.387)、(4.580±0.474)μmol/L]比较,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05);氟+茶多酚组、氟+铝+茶多酚组、砖茶组血清中NO水平[(23.278±2.386),(20.643±2.623)、(24.367±6.072)μmol/L]与加氟组、氟+铝组[(32μ962±8.268)、(34.909±6.288)μmol/L]比较,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05):加氟组、氟+销组、氟+茶多酚组、氟+铝+茶多酚组、砖茶组血清IL-1β水平分别为(4.728±0.297)、(4.412±0.229)、(4.432±0.285)、(4.516±0.351)、(4.614±0.2270)ng/L,组间比较,差异无统计学意义(F=2.314,P>0.05);氟+铝+茶多酚组、砖茶组IL-6水平[(7.231±0.596)、(7.325±0.290)ng/L]与氟+铝组[(8.256±0.635)ng/L]比较,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05).氟+茶多酚组、氟+铝+茶多酚组、砖茶组iNOS mRNA相对表达量(0.482±0.021、0.447±0.021、0.491±0.022)与加氟组、氟+铝组(0.562±0.025、0.591±0.020)比较,差异有统计学意义(P均<0.05);对照组iNOS蛋白表达阳性细胞主要分布在关节表层,各实验组iNOS阳性细胞在关节面表层、中层均有分布.结论 茶多酚能通过清除氧自由基、提高机体总抗氧化能力、减少脂质过氧化产物等抗氧化作用减轻饮茶型氟中毒引起的大鼠氧化应激损伤,对饮茶型氟中毒有一定的保护作用.     

3H-thymidine incorporation into chondrocytes of arthritic cartilage]

An autoradiographic investigation was done to characterize cell proliferation in osteoarthrotic cartilage with regard to the formation of clusters. Altogether, 3H-thymidine labelled chondrocytes were rarely observed--a labelling index of 0.5/1000 was calculated. One isolated 3H-thymidine labelled mitosis was found. Labelled cells were often encountered in chondrocyte clusters leading to the assumption that an increased proliferation of chondrocytes is the mechanism of cluster formation.     

Role of tenascin-C in articular cartilage

Tenascin-C (TN-C) is a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix (ECM). TN-C consists of four distinct domains, including the tenascin assembly domain, epidermal growth factor-like repeats, fibronectin type III-like repeats, and the fibrinogen-like globe (FBG) domain. This review summarizes the role of TN-C in articular cartilage. Expression of TN-C is associated with the development of articular cartilage but markedly decreases during maturation of chondrocytes and disappears almost completely in adult articular cartilage. Increased expression of TN-C has been found at diseased cartilage and synovial sites in osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). TN-C is increased in the synovial fluid in patients with OA and RA. In addition, serum TN-C is elevated in RA patients. TN-C could be a useful biochemical marker for joint disease. The addition of TN-C results in different effects among TN-C domains. TN-C fragments might be endogenous inducers of cartilage matrix degradation; however, full-length TN-C could promote cartilage repair and prevent cartilage degeneration. The deficiency of TN-C enhanced cartilage degeneration in the spontaneous OA in aged joints and surgical OA model. The clinical significance of TN-C effects on cartilage is not straightforward.     

Chondrocyte apoptosis and expression of Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS in articular cartilage in patients with Kashin-Beck disease

OBJECTIVE: Kashin-Beck disease (KBD) is a chronic, endemic osteochondropathy principally occurring in children. We investigated apoptotic chondrocyte death and the expression of Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in articular cartilage from patients with KBD in order to determine the pathogenesis of chondronecrosis in KBD. METHODS: Samples of articular cartilage were divided into 2 groups: control children (15 samples from 15 cases), and children with KBD (15 samples from 15 cases). KBD patients were diagnosed according to "Pathological Criteria to Diagnose KBD in China." Chondrocyte apoptosis was detected by TUNEL staining, and Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS-positive articular chondrocytes were stained by immunohistochemistry. Articular cartilage was classified in 3 zones, and positive findings were counted by light microscopy for cytoplasmic staining by polyclonal antibodies of Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS and apoptotic chondrocytes by TUNEL. RESULTS: The percentage of positive apoptotic chondrocytes stained by TUNEL in the middle zone of articular cartilage from the KBD patient group (33.60% +/- 2.71%) was higher than that of controls (1.33% +/- 0.41%; p < 0.01). The percentages of chondrocytes staining for Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS in KBD patients were significantly higher than in controls (p < 0.01); the remarkable difference in Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS expression among the upper, middle, and deep cartilage zones was also seen in KBD articular cartilage (p < 0.01); and staining for Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS in KBD patients was prominent in the upper zone (41.93% +/- 12.26%, 45.60% +/- 15.78%, 53.60% +/- 16.49%, 45.47% +/- 14.02%, respectively) and the middle zone (14.93% +/- 3.50%, 13.87% +/- 4.32%, 23.27% +/- 4.83%, 21.67% +/- 6.82%) of articular cartilage. CONCLUSION: The apoptotic chondrocytes and Bcl-2, Bax, Fas, and iNOS-positive chondrocytes were significantly more numerous in patients with KBD than in controls.     

In vitro hexosamine depletion of intact articular cartilage by e-prostaglandins

Short-term incubations of intact canine articular cartilage slices with prostaglandins E₁ and E₂ caused significant losses of hexosamine from cartilage matrix compared to controls. Chloroquine, an inhibitor of DNA primer, prevented this prostaglandin-induced hexosamine depletion. These data suggest that E-prostaglandins may degrade articular cartilage directly through DNA-dependent RNA synthesis of cathepsinlike proteases. Catabolism of articular cartilage probably involves degradation of existing matrix in addition to inhibition of synthesis.     

Averaged and depth-dependent anisotropy of articular cartilage by microscopic imaging

OBJECTIVES: To identify the common connections among the averaged and depth-dependent anisotropic properties of articular cartilage by performing a meta-analysis of several published multidisciplinary imaging results. The imaging techniques involved include microscopic magnetic resonance imaging (microMRI), polarized light microscopy (PLM), Fourier-transform infrared imaging (FTIRI), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). METHODS: Several physical properties of cartilage are incorporated in this meta-analysis. These tissue properties include T(2) anisotropy from microMRI, angle and retardance from PLM, infrared anisotropy from FTIRI, and image morphology from TEM. Because the specimens in these studies all came from the same type of canine humeral joints, it is possible to correlate these multidisciplinary tissue properties using a common platform. RESULTS: An ellipse model was used to identify the connections among these tissue properties in terms of the anisotropy of articular cartilage, in each histological zone as well as for the entire noncalcified tissue. It was found that many aspects of these tissue properties can be interpreted beyond their usual meanings as measured, based on 3 features of an ellipse: the concentration, the orientation, and the anisotropy. CONCLUSIONS: The ellipse model is a useful graphical concept in cartilage imaging since it helps to bring together the measured physical/morphological/chemical quantities in these imaging tools and the anisotropic structure of articular cartilage. Two possible mechanisms for the angular transition of collagen fibrils in cartilage are discussed.