Transversal craniofacial growth evaluated on children dry skulls using V2 and V3 canal openings as references

Purpose

The aim of this study was to investigate the transversal relationships between two cephalometric landmarks and lines on the face using ovale, rotundum, greater palatine and infra-orbital foramina as references.

Method

Thirty-four children dry skulls, 19 males and 15 females aged 0–6 years, were examined by computed tomography scanning by using constructed tomographic axial and frontal planes. The cephalometric transversal dimensions of the face skull were measured between the right and left landmarks from the orbital lateral wall and from the zygomatic arch. The cephalometric transversal dimensions of the base skull were measured between the right and left ovale, rotundum, greater palatine and infra-orbital foramina.

Results

Statistical analysis using partial correlations, regardless of the age, showed strong relationships (p < 0.05) among transversal measurements with nerve canal openings and transversal distances of skull face.

Conclusion

We showed that the cranial base transversal growth was very strongly related to facial transversal growth from the postnatal period up to 6 years of age.     

翼腭窝骨性结构及其毗邻关系的应用解剖

目的 研究翼腭窝及其毗邻结构的显微外科解剖关系,为临床开展相关手术提供解剖学依据。方法 成人干性颅骨标本20个（40侧）,在手术显微镜及鼻内镜下观测蝶腭孔、筛骨嵴、圆孔、翼腭管、翼管的形态、大小及相关解剖学参数。结果 翼上颌裂高度为（15.30±0.43）mm,蝶腭孔的前后径和上下径分别为（5.10±1.84）mm和（5.09±1.53）mm,蝶腭孔到中线的距离为（12.49±1.51）mm,前鼻棘至蝶腭孔前缘的距离为（51.32±3.28）mm,圆孔的直径为（3.14±1.26）mm,圆孔至中线的距离为（19.95±2.79） mm,前鼻棘至圆孔的距离为（61.86±3.67）mm,翼管至中线的距离为（10.82±2.98）mm,前鼻棘至翼管的距离为（59.47±3.42）mm。结论 熟悉翼腭窝、蝶腭孔、圆孔和翼管等解剖关系,有助于有效安全地开展鼻内镜下翼腭窝手术。     

Anatomy of greater palatine foramen and canal and pterygopalatine fossa in Thais: considerations for maxillary nerve block

This study aims to investigate the anatomy of the greater palatine foramen (GPF), greater palatine canal (GPC) and pterygopalatine fossa (PPF) with special reference to the blockage of the maxillary nerve. A correlation between the length of GPC and PPF and the heights of the orbit and the maxilla was also studied using simple linear regression analysis. The morphology of the GPF, GPC and PPF as well as heights of the orbit and the maxilla were assessed in 105 Thai skulls. The thickness of the mucosa over the GPF was also measured from the dissection of 55 cadavers. The results showed that most GPF appeared as an oval foramen located at the palatal aspect of the upper third molar. The GPF was 16.2±1.3 mm lateral to the median sagittal plane of the hard palate, 2.1±1.3 mm anterior to the posterior border of the hard palate and 5.1±1.3 mm from the greatest concavity of the distolateral margin of the hard palate. The mean length of GPC and PPF was 29.7±4.2 mm. The mean angles of the GPC in relation to the hard palate and the vertical plane were 57.9±5.8° and 6.7±5.2°, respectively. In attempting to insert a needle to reach the foramen rotundum through the GPF, 31.7% passed into the orbit while 8.7% passed into the brain. The mean thickness of the mucosa over GPF was 6.7±2.3 mm. Two models for estimating the depth of needle injection in maxillary nerve block have been developed as follows: Length of GPC and PPF=19.038+0.314 (orbital height) and length of GPC and PPF=21.204+0.187 (maxillary height). The calculated length combined with the mucosal thickness was the estimated depth of needle injection. In conclusion, our results concerning the GPF, GPC and PPF will provide the useful reference for clinicians to anesthetize the maxillary nerve with a greater degree of success.     

上颌神经的解剖研究及其临床意义

目的　为翼腭窝内上颌神经手术提供解剖依据。 方法　在15个成人头颅部标本中解剖观测上颌神经出圆孔处到鼻腔外侧壁、正中矢状面的距离,观察上颌神经与上颌动脉的关系。 结果　上颌神经出圆孔处到鼻腔外侧壁的距离为（13.78±2.18）mm;距正中矢状面的距离为（17.89±2.67）mm 。上颌神经与上颌动脉的位置关系是：63.3％动脉位于神经的外下方,37.7％在神经下方。 上颌神经与上颌动脉之间的距离为 （7.68±1.35）mm（6.60~11.10 mm）。 结论　本研究可为上颌神经手术提供解剖学参数。     

Doubled foramen rotundum and maxillary nerve fenestration

Even though the doubled foramen rotundum (FR) can be identified once within the literature, there are no details of the contents at that level. We present here an anatomical case demonstrating the maxillary nerve (MN) duplication at the level of an unilateral doubled FR: the accessory nervous trunk of the MN separately left the trigeminal ganglion on the outer side of the MN main trunk and coursed beneath the main trunk of the MN canal, within the sphenoidal greater wing, to join infero-medially that main trunk at the entrance in the pterygopalatine fossa. Overall, the MN appeared as fenestrated, with a thin bony plate separating the two cords of the nerve traversing the skull base. Previously undocumented, the MN duplication may interfere with various surgical exposures interfering with the foramen rotundum and may explain atypical sensory syndromes and functional impairment during skull base trauma or anesthesia.     

模拟内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔的解剖

目的 通过模拟内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔手术入路,对Meckel腔及入路的相关结构进行解剖学研究,为临床内镜下Meckel腔手术提供解剖学及形态学资料。
方法 对10具(20侧)动静脉灌注乳胶的成人尸头标本,完全模拟经双鼻孔至Meckel腔的手术入路逐层显微解剖,对入路相关解剖标志进行观察、分析、拍摄和测量。 结果 该入路可分4步,即寻找上颌窦口,进入上颌窦,进入翼腭窝和进入Meckel腔。鼻小柱距上颌窦口的距离为（45.07±2.01）mm,与蝶腭孔的距离为(64.84±3.00)mm,距翼管前孔距离为(71.34±2.99)mm。以鼻小柱至鼻后棘的连线为底边,其与鼻小柱与上颌窦口连线的夹角为(38.81±1.72)。其与鼻小柱与蝶腭孔连线的夹角为(25.92±2.05) °。蝶腭动脉及翼管动脉平均外径分别为(2.21±0.24)mm和(1.07±0.27)mm。翼腭窝区结构复杂,其内上颌动脉及其终支蝶腭动脉和腭降动脉变异较大,沿蝶腭动脉逆行解剖有助于寻找上颌动脉及其分支结构。解剖分离翼腭窝内神经、血管等结构,追踪翼管神经血管束,依据翼管后端正对颈内动脉破裂孔段的特点,解剖分离四方形空间可较直接进入Meckel腔。结论 侵犯Meckel腔肿瘤的入路选择应该个体化,应依据肿瘤主体在Meckel腔的位置及范围等决定选1种或联合入路;内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔入路可较直接地暴露Meckel腔的前下内面及翼腭窝区域的解剖结构;手术中重要的解剖标志为蝶腭孔、翼管神经、翼管和上颌神经;翼腭窝中浅部血管结构的解剖有助于深部神经结构的保护,深部神经结构（如翼管神经和上颌神经）和其穿行的骨孔有助于在颅底辨别和控制颈内动脉。     

Microvascular architecture of the palatine mucosa in the common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus).

Detailed observations were made of the structure and microvasculature of the palatine mucous membrane of the common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) by means of the plastic injection method under a scanning electron microscope. The findings obtained were compared with those of the Japanese monkey and other mammals. The osseous palate was flat horizontally and a pair of incisive foramina were apparently open at the anterior end of the hard palate. At the posterior end of the osseous palate, the pterygopalatine incisurae were found bilaterally. The incisive papilla was not obvious in form and size, and a pair of openings of the incisive canal were always situated on both sides of the papilla. The transverse palatine plicae or ridges numbered 7 or 8 symmetrically. They arched posterolaterally with an anterior protrusion near each median end. Posterior plicae were underdeveloped. Numerous openings of the palatine glands were found in the soft palatine mucosa. The arteries supplying the palate were the major palatine artery passing through the major palatine foramen and the soft palatine artery passing through the pterygopalatine incisura. The major palatine artery extended forwards giving off numerous medial and lateral branches, and its end on the respective side entered a small foramen located lateral to the incisive foramen. Medial and lateral branches formed the submucous arterial network. Arterioles diverging from this network were directed to the epithelial surface and formed an arterial network in the lamina propria. Further, capillaries diverging from the latter network built up the subepithelial capillary network immediately beneath the epithelium. Capillary loops sprouting from the capillary network were found in the form of a simple hair-pin without locational differences in their heights. The microvascular architecture thus displayed some similarity with that of the Japanese monkey. However, the vascular networks in the lamina propria and submucous layer were not distinct in size and scale as compared to those of the Japanese monkey. These differences may be related to the stature, living environment and food habits of this species.     

An anatomic study using three-dimensional reconstruction for pterygopalatine fossa infiltration via the greater palatine canal

The pterygopalatine fossa (PPF) is accessed via the greater palatine canal (GPC) in an attempt to reduce bleeding during paranasal sinus surgery. This study aims to investigate the anatomy of the greater palatine foramen (GPF), GPC, and the PPF, with reference to PPF infiltration using three-dimensional reconstruction of computer tomographic (CT) scan measurements. The CT scans of 50 patients were retrospectively evaluated. The morphology of the GPF, GPC, and the PPF was assessed in a three-dimensional model. The thickness of the mucosa over the GPF was evaluated in the parasagittal plane. The mean length of the GPC was 13.8 ± 2.0 mm, and the mean height of the PPF was 21.0 ± 3.4 mm. The mean angles of the GPC in relation to the hard palate and the PPF were 67.4° ± 6.9° and 159.8° ± 7.1°, respectively. The GPF was 16.2 ± 1.3 mm lateral to the sagittal plane of the posterior nasal spine (PNS) and 6.1 ± 1.7 mm anterior to the coronal plane of the PNS. The mean volume of the PPF was 1039.9 ± 280.0 mm(3) . The mean thickness of the mucosa overlying the GPF was 10.7 ± 1.8 mm. We recommend that the PNS may be used as the bony landmark to locate the position of the GPF during PPF infiltration. The needle delivering the anesthetic should be bent 25 mm from the tip at a 45° angle, and a 1-ml injection of anesthetic should be administered in adults.     

Surgical anatomy of the infratemporal fossa using the transmaxillary approach

Abstract In this study we evaluated the ability of the transmaxillary route to expose the elements of the infratemporal fossa (ITF). Five adult cadaver heads were dissected on both sides, after making a paralateronasal incision. The maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve served as a superior landmark to progress into the retroantral space and pterygopalatine fossa. The maxillary artery, lateral pterygoid muscle, pterygoid venous plexus, foramen rotundum and foramen ovale were identified. Distances between those elements and angle of approaches of the foramen ovale and foramen rotundum were measured in the horizontal plane. In all cases, the anterior loop of the maxillary artery and the sphenopalatine artery were located in the proximal retroantral fatty space and could be ligated without optic magnification. The maxillary nerve could be followed up to the foramen rotundum at a 44 mm mean distance from the opening. The mean angle of vision to the foramen rotundum was 31°. Under the greater sphenoid wing and lateral to the pterygoid process, desinsertion and partial resection of the lateral pterygoid muscle were required to identify the pterygoid venous plexus and foramen ovale. The pterygoid venous plexus was organized as a compact network of channels between and superior to the muscle fibers it was in close relation with the foramen ovale. Access to the foramen ovale was deep (mean 56 mm) and narrow (20°). Our results indicate that the transmaxillary approach is a minimally invasive procedure that gives an appropriate window to the structures of the retroantral space and to the pterygomaxillary fissure and pterygopalatine fossa. Monitoring of the retropterygoid portion of the infratemporal fossa by this route is inadequate.     

单侧完全性唇腭裂胎儿宫内手术修复的解剖学基础

目的　为单侧性唇腭裂胎儿宫内手术修复提供解剖学基础。 方法 制作和观察21～32周正常和单侧完全性唇腭裂胎儿头颈部血管铸型标本,比较他们唇腭部血供的来源及吻合情况。 结果 ①正常胎儿唇腭部的血供主要由上唇动脉、鼻翼下缘动脉和腭大动脉组成。两侧上唇动脉在中线附近吻合成上唇动脉弓,并在鼻中隔前下部形成浅深两层血管网,且上唇动脉鼻中隔支也与腭大动脉穿支相互吻合;②单侧完全性唇腭裂胎儿唇腭部血供由于患侧裂隙的阻隔,导致左右上唇动脉不能吻合成弓,患侧腭大动脉穿过骨残端与患侧鼻腔内的血管相吻合。 结论 单侧完全性唇腭裂胎儿唇腭部血管非常丰富,尤以上唇动脉和腭大动脉为血供主干。     

三种鼻内镜手术径路暴露翼腭窝的解剖研究及其临床意义

目的：研究三种鼻内镜手术径路暴露翼腭窝的解剖方法。方法：通过解剖成人尸体头部标本15例（30侧）,采用手术显微镜及鼻内镜观察暴露翼腭窝的三种径路。结果：①中鼻道经腭术式可以暴露翼腭窝内侧的蝶腭动脉、腭神经、翼管神经,沿腭神经可确认翼腭神经节;②中鼻道经上颌窦术式能很好地暴露翼腭窝内、外侧壁,眶下神经是手术的重要标志;③下鼻甲切除经上颌窦术式比鼻内镜下中鼻道经上颌窦术式更广泛地暴露翼腭窝的内、外侧,提供宽阔的视野和较大的手术操作空间。结论：三种手术径路均能暴露翼腭窝的结构,具体术式需根据病变范围及手术要求而决定。     

口腭咽入路的解剖基础及手术中应用

目的　探讨口腭咽入路相应的解剖学结构和临床应用效果。 方法　在15具动脉灌注乳胶的成人尸头上模拟口腭咽入路,在显微镜下观察腭大孔、切牙孔的位置,骨嵴的比例,腭大动脉的走行,硬腭部软组织的结构特点并测量颅底重要解剖结构间的距离;对2006年3月至2010年6月经口腭咽入路行显微手术治疗的18例颅底中线区肿瘤患者的资料进行回顾性分析。 结果　切牙孔距牙槽嵴前端的距离为(5.18±2.44)mm,骨嵴的比例为93.3%,54支腭大动脉走行于硬腭半宽的中内2/3侧,术式的暴露范围主要受限于双侧的视神经、颈内动脉、舌下神经管内口等结构;本组18例中12例全切除,6例次全切除,并发症包括1例脑脊液鼻漏,1例构音不良,无死亡、偏瘫等严重并发症。 结论　口腭咽入路切除颅底中线区肿瘤具有暴露充分、手术创伤小、并发症少的优点。该入路是切除颅底中线区肿瘤的较佳入路。     

Anatomic and magnetic resonance imaging bases for the naso-maxillo-cheek flap technique

A transfacial approach to the deep cranio-maxillo-facial areas by the naso-maxillo-cheek flap technique (NMCF) is indicated for the treatment of some bulky tumors of the naso-pharynx. The procedure requires precise preoperative imaging. This study presents the morphologic bases of this surgical access and the reasonable limits of the excision preoperatively determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). 18 facial and skull specimens were submitted to surgical facial dismantling by the NMCF technique according to Curioni’s method. The clinical application in a 66-year-old patient suffering from a neuroblastoma of the olfactory nerve extended into the naso-pharynx is presented. Pre- and postoperative MRI correlations were made in transverse, sagittal and frontal acquisitions. Several structures were preserved in the procedure: facial reliefs, inferior orbital rim and orbital floor, posterior wall of the maxillary sinus covering the pterygopalatine fossa, lateral and medial pterygoid plates and pterygopalatine ganglion with its branches, lateral facial neurovascular pedicle, teeth and soft palate. Other structures were sacrificed: arteries and nerves located at the sites of skin and mucosal incision, and at the sites of osteotomies, ie the infraorbital nerve, the distal part of the greater palatine nerve, the nerves supplying the naso-pharynx, the nasal septum and the nasal conchae, nasolacrimal groove and lacrimal canal. The NMCF technique gives wide access to the deep nasal and nasopharyngeal areas. It is essential to preserve the lateral facial neurovascular pedicle to prevent necrosis of the midface structures. Preservation of the bony architecture surrounding the osteotomy sites is of great importance to allow precise final bone reassembly. Preoperative MRI appears of paramount importance to determine the borders of the lesion and the possibility of block resection.     

Rare anatomical variation related to the nasopalatine canal

The nasopalatine canal is a relatively long narrow structure located in the midline of the maxilla that contains the nasopalatine nerve and terminal branch of the descending palatine artery. Anatomical variations related to this structure have been reported. This article aimed to report a case of a complete additional nasopalatine canal on a 53-year-old female patient who underwent an examination by cone beam computed tomography. On sagittal slices, it was possible to observe the presence of an additional canal anterior and superior to the nasopalatine canal, separated by a bony septum. Each canal extended from independent superior openings (located in the nasal cavity) to independent openings located in the remaining alveolar process of the anterior maxilla. Identification of individual anatomical variations, especially involving neurovascular structures, plays an important role in the successful outcomes of surgical procedures involving the anterior maxilla.     

翼腭间隙通道的CT三维重建及临床意义

目的　为翼腭间隙通道及其邻近结构病变的影像诊断和内镜手术提供解剖学资料。 方法　选取志愿者40名,在螺旋CT机上沿眦耳线（CML）连续扫描,将原始图像数据输入CT三维重建工作站,采用多平面重组技术（MPR）,沿翼腭间隙各通道长轴和垂直于各通道长轴分别进行CT图像重建。观察翼腭间隙通道的位置、形态及毗邻结构,测量其径线。 结果　MPR重建CT影像可清楚显示翼腭间隙通道的圆孔、翼管、蝶腭孔、眶下裂、翼上颌裂、翼腭管、腭大管、腭小管、腭鞘管和犁鞘管的位置、形态及其毗邻结构,左、右侧翼腭间隙通道呈对称性分布,各径线均无显著性差异（P>0.05）。圆孔、翼管、腭鞘管和犁鞘管位于蝶窦周围,可轻度或明显凸入蝶窦腔内。圆孔和翼管分别位于蝶窦腔的上、下方,长度（4.05±　0.81）mm和（14.49±1.60）mm,冠状重建影像可较清晰显示其位置关系。 结论　翼腭间隙通道的CT三维重建对翼腭间隙通道及其邻近结构病变的影像诊断和内镜手术具有重要的临床意义。     

Establishment of Pharyngeal Dimensions in Population of Haryana Using Cephalometric Radiographs

A study for pharyngeal dimensions in normal healthy population of Haryana by utilizing digital radiographs was conducted with an objective to establish normal pharyngeal dimensions using cephalometric radiographs and to observe age and sex related variations in these dimensions. A total of 120 subjects participated in the study out of which 60 were males and 60 were females with the age varying from1B-60years. Lateral cephalometric radiographs were obtained by using standardized technique. Measurement of depth of pharyngeal cavity was done at the level of hard palate (depth of nasopharynx), soft palate (depth of oropharynx), tongue base (minimum posterior airway space) and the vallecula (depth of hypopharynx) in the cephalometric radiographs by utilizing IPAX-DICOM software. In males the cavity was deeper than females only at the level of tongue base and vallecula. As age advances the depth of pharyngeal cavity at the level of soft palate and tongue base reduces in males. The females were showing the significant reduction atthe level of soft palate only.     

翼腭间隙的三维断层解剖

目的：为翼腭间隙疾病的影像诊断提供解剖学资料。方法：选用成人尸体头颈部制成连续横、矢、冠状断面,观察翼腭间隙及其结构的解剖学关系,利用游标卡尺及求积仪分别测量其径线和面积。结果：翼腭间隙形态多变,经蝶骨体横断层面较固定,与翼突形态密切相关。两侧翼腭间隙及其结构呈对称性,径线和面积均无显著性差异。横断面可清晰显示翼腭间隙前、后、内侧和外侧壁上的结构及圆孔、翼管、蝶腭孔、翼上颌裂和眶下裂等自然通道;矢状断面能较好显示翼腭管、腭大管及腭小管的连续性;冠状断面利于观察翼腭间隙顶壁、圆孔、眶下裂、翼管及其与蝶窦的关系。结论：翼腭间隙的三维断层解剖对疾病的影像诊断具有重要意义。     

翼管神经的应用解剖学

目的 探讨翼管神经血管束的解剖结构及其作为内镜经鼻颅底手术中解剖标志的临床意义。方法 观察256例慢性鼻炎患者的蝶窦冠状位CT中翼管与蝶窦底壁的位置关系,三维重建26例患者蝶窦CT片,测量翼管相关解剖数据;解剖6具湿性成人尸头,观察翼管神经血管束周围解剖结构关系,评价翼管神经血管束等作为解剖标志的临床意义。 结果 翼管完全突入蝶窦内为18.8%（48/256）,半突入蝶窦腔内为32.8%(84/256),完全走行蝶窦底壁骨质内为48.4%(124/256)。翼管前口及圆孔内径分别是（4.6±0.5）mm、（2.7±0.7）mm,翼管前口边缘至圆孔边缘、蝶腭孔边缘和破裂孔间距分别为（6.0±2.4）mm、（3.6±0.9）mm和（16.9±1.9）mm。翼管神经是翼腭窝内寻找蝶腭神经节、上颌神经的重要标志;翼管位于蝶窦底壁及外侧壁交界处,翼管神经血管束指向颈内动脉膝状部,也是海绵窦前部和Meckel腔的标志。 结论 翼管神经血管束作为解剖标志对于内镜经鼻颅底手术有重要的指导作用,正确认识这些解剖标志有助于提高手术安全性。     

Palatal analysis and osteology of the hard palate of the Kenyan African skulls

One hundred twenty-five dry skulls from Kenya that consisted of about 90% Bantu individuals were examined to obtain data on the gross anatomy of the hard palate. The palatine index showed that 43.2% of the total sample of skulls has narrow (leptostaphyline), 23.7% intermediate (mesostaphyline), and 33.1% wide (brachystaphyline) palates. The palatine height index showed that 40% skulls had low (chamestaphyline), 57% intermediate (orthostaphyline), and 3.0% deep (hypsistaphyline) palates. Mean palatal length, breadth, and height for the total sample was 4.92 cm, 4.02 cm, and 1.22 cm, respectively. The incisive foramen and canal was cone shaped in 80% where the diameter of the foramen was less than 0.4 cm, while it was cylindrical in 20% where the diameter was greater than 0.4 cm. Forty-nine per cent of the skulls had two-five lesser palatine foramina present. The greater palatine foramen was found to lie at the level of the third molar in 76%, intermediate between second and third molars in 13.6%, and opposite the second molar in 10.4%. The greater palatine foramen opened antero-medially in 74% and perpendicularly in 26% of the palates. Extensive longitudinal palatal grooves were found bilaterally in all the palates, 70% showed divisions of the grooves, 63.2% had crests along the border of the grooves, and 19.2% had bridges in the posterior part of the groove near the opening of the greater palatine foramen. The incidence of palatine torus was 4.8%. The incisive suture was present in 6.4% of the adult palates.