Role of the Rosa canina L. leaf extract as an antidiarrheal drug in rodents

Objectives:

The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of the leaf extract of Rosa canina L. against experimental diarrhea induced by castor oil in rodents.

Materials and Methods:

The methanol extract of Rosa canina L. (30 and 60 mg/kg body weight) was administered orally to two groups of mice (five animals per group) in order to evaluate the activity of the extract against the castor oil-induced diarrhea model in mice. Two other groups received normal saline and diphenoxylate (5 mg/kg) as positive control. The effect of the extract on intestinal transit and castor oil-induced intestinal fluid accumulation (enteropooling) was assessed. The effects of the extract on the isolated rabbit jejunum and on the isolated rat ileum were studied.

Results:

The preliminary phytochemical screening of the leaf extract of Rosa Canina L. revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and volatile oil. Intraperitoneal LD50 of the extract was found to be 455.19 ± 23 mg/kg in mice. The antidiarrheal effect of the methanolic extract exhibited a concentration-dependent inhibition of the spontaneous pendular movement of the isolated rabbit jejunum and inhibited acetylcholine-induced contraction of the rat ileum. A dose-dependent decrease in gastrointestinal transit was observed with extracts (30 and 60 mg/kg), which also protected mice against castor oil-induced diarrhea and castor oil-induced fluid accumulation, respectively.

Conclusions:

The presence of some of the phytochemicals in the leaf extract may be responsible for the observed effects, and also the basis for its use in traditional medicine as an antidiarrheal drug.     

Evaluation of antidiarrheal potential of trichodesma indicum root extract in rats

Trichodesma indicum is found as a weed throughout the greater part of India. The decoction of the root is used for diarrhea, dysentery, and fever in Indian traditional medicine. However, the traditional claims need to be validated by suitable experimental animal models. Therefore, this study was undertaken to evaluate its antidiarrheal potential in several animal models. The extract significantly inhibited the castor oil-induced diarrhea and decreased propulsion of charcoal meal through the gastrointestinal tract; it also reduced the castor oil-induced small intestinal fluid accumulation (enteropooling). The ethanol extract of T. indicum root has significant antidiarrheal activity and substantiates the use of this herbal remedy as a nonspecific treatment for diarrhea in folk medicine.     

Evaluation of the antidiarrheal and antioxidant properties of Justicia hypocrateriformis

Content: Justicia hypocrateriformis Vahl (Acanthaceae) is used as an herbal remedy for diarrhea in Cameroon folk medicine.

Objective: This study evaluates the antidiarrheal and antioxidant properties of the aqueous extract of J. hypocrateriformis (JH).

Materials and methods: Preliminary phytochemical screening and an acute toxicity testing of the extract were carried out. The antidiarrheal activity of JH extract (100, 250, and 500?mg/kg) was assessed at curative and preventive levels in castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice. The antioxidant activity was measured by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), total phenolic content, and radical scavenging activity.

Results: A high lethal dose (LD₅₀) of 14.35?g/kg obtained in acute toxicity implies the extract is not toxic. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of phenols, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, anthraquinones, and anthocyanins. JH showed a significant protection against castor oil-induced diarrhea as evidenced by a decrease in the number of defecation and wet stool. JH (100–500?mg/kg, p.o.) produced a non-significant dose-dependent decrease in castor oil-induced intestinal transit in the preventive study. In the curative and in healthy mice study, the decrease was only significant at 500?mg/kg. JH possessed a radical scavenging activity with an IC₅₀ of 9.93?mg/ml compared to 4.90?mg/ml for catechin. JH FRAP of 2703.77?±?0?mg/g (catechin equiv) and phenolic concentration of 14?169.99?±?612.39?mg/g (catechin equiv) were also obtained.

Conclusion: Justicia hypocrateriformis extract possesses antidiarrheal activity supported by its antioxidant potential and phytochemical constituents.     

Antidiarrheal activity of extracts and compound from Trilepisium madagascariense stem bark

Objective:

The present study was performed to evaluate the preventive and curative antidiarrheal effects of the methanol extract, fractions and compound from the stem bark of Trilepisium madagascariense in rats.

Materials and Methods:

The methanol extract from the stem bark of T. madagascariense, its fractions (n-hexane, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and aqueous residue) and compound (obtained from further column chromatography of the ethyl acetate fraction) were evaluated for the antidiarrheal activity in rats. These test samples (at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg for the extract and fractions and 2.5 mg/kg for compound) were assayed on the latent periods, purging indices and fecal frequencies in castor oil-induced diarrhea. Gastrointestinal transit and castor oil-induced enteropooling assays were conducted. Shigella-induced diarrhea was assayed. Blood chemistry and fecal Shigella load were examined.

Results:

The fractionation of the ethyl acetate fraction from the methanol extract of T. madagascariense afforded a known compound [isoliquiritigenin (1)]. Compound 1 increased the latent period of diarrhea induction (179.40 min) compared to the saline control (60.80 min). The purging indices, fecal frequencies and intestinal enteropooling decreased with an increase in the dose of test samples. The blood cell counts, sera creatinine and fecal Shigella load decreased significantly (P ≤ 0.05) in the plant extract-treated rats compared to the saline control.

Conclusion:

The results of our study, being reported for the first time, provide clear evidence that the methanol extract, fractions and isoliquiritigenin from T. madagascariense stem bark possess antidiarrheal activities.     

Antidiarrheal and phytochemical constituents of methanol extracts of some plants in Saudi Arabia

OBJECTIVE The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the antidiarrheal effects and the phytochemical constituents of methanol extracts of some plants used traditionally in kingdom of Saudi Arabia using castor oil-induced diarrhea and gastrointestinal motility test using charcoal meal method were examined.METHODS The methanolic extracts were initially assayed for their effects in castor oil-induced diarrhea at different doses(250and 500mg·kg-1 followed by their evaluation on the peristaltic movements in charcoal meal test.RESULTS The results of the present study indicates that,administration of the following methanol plant extracts;Rhazya stricta,Heliotropium bacciferum,Tribulus longipetalus,Achillea fragrantissima,Artemisia herba alba,Haloxylon salicornicum,Plantago coronopus,Cyperus conglomerates,Hordeum distichon,Eragrostis poaeoides,Astragalus spinosus,Lepidium sativum seeds induced a higher percentages of inhibition of diarrhea.While,the administration of Rhanterium epapposum,Moltkiopsis ciliate,Lasiurus hirsutus,Deverra triradiata,Lycium shawii.Echinops spinosus,Echinops hussoni,and Prosopis farcta were the least efficacy.The antidiarrheal effects of these plants might be due to their high contents of flavonoids and tannins.CONCLUSION It could be concluded that,the remarkable antidiarrheal effects of these plants attest to their utility in a wide range of stats of diarrhea.     

Antidiarrheal Activity of the Aqueous Extract of Punica granatum. (Pomegranate) Peels

Abstract

The antidiarrheal effects of the aqueous extract of Punica granatum. L. (Punicaceae) peels were evaluated in rats. Studies were carried out on the isolated rat ileum, gastrointestinal motility in vivo., and on castor oil–induced diarrhea in rats. The results revealed that the extract exhibited a concentration-dependent inhibition of the spontaneous movement of the isolated rat ileum and attenuated acetylcholine-induced contractions. The extract (100, 200, 300, and 400 mg/kg) also caused a dose-dependent decrease of gastrointestinal transit and markedly protected rats against castor oil–induced diarrhea enteropooling. The intraperitoneal injection LD₅₀ of the extract was found to be 1321 ± 15 mg/kg in mice. A preliminary phytochemical screening of the aqueous extract of Punica granatum. peels gave positive tests for tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids. The results obtained showed that the aqueous extract of Punica granatum. peels may contain some biologically active principles that may be active against diarrhea, and this may be the basis for its traditional use for gastrointestinal disorders.     

Effect of Aframomum melegueta. Seed Extract on Castor Oil–Induced Diarrhea

ABSTRACT

The effect of the aqueous (aq) seed extract of Aframomum melegueta. K. Schum. (Zingiberaceae) on castor oil-induced diarrhea, intestinal fluid secretion, and gastrointestinal transit was investigated in the study. Castor oil (10 ml/kg, p.o.) induced copious diarrhea in all rats 3 h after treatment. Furthermore, it produced a significant increase in the volume of intestinal fluid secretion in rats and also enhanced intestinal transit in mice. The aq seed extract of A. melegueta. (100–500 mg/kg, p.o.) offered significant protection against diarrhea induced by the oil. At a dose range of 250–500 mg/kg, the extract reduced significantly the volume of fluid secretion in castor oil–treated rats. At these doses, it also demonstrated a significant antitransit activity in a dose-related manner. Acetylsalicylic acid (100 mg/kg, p.o.) delayed diarrhea and reduced the number of animals with diarrheal droppings to 20%. At the same dose level, acetylsalicylic acid reduced significantly the volume of intestinal fluid secretion but lacked antitransit property in castor oil–treated animals. N.-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (2.5–10 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently reduced the number of animals with diarrhea. At 50 mg/kg i.p., it offered 100% protection against diarrhea induced by the oil. Furthermore, L-NAME (10 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly inhibited both the intestinal fluid secretion and gastrointestinal transit induced by castor oil. However, L-NAME (10 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly modify the antidiarrheal effect of A. melegueta.. L-Arginine, a substrate of nitric oxide synthase or isosorbide dinitrate, a nitric oxide donor, did not alter the effect of A. melegueta. on diarrhea. Ascorbic acid (100 mg/kg, p.o.) and α.-tocopherol (20 mg/kg, p.o.) reduced the number of animals with diarrhea to 80% and 70%, respectively. However, they both lacked significant activities on intestinal fluid secretion and gastrointestinal transit induced by castor oil. The combination of ascorbic acid (100 mg/kg, p.o.) or α.-tocopherol (20 mg/kg, p.o.) with A. melegueta. (500 mg/kg) offered higher protection against diarrhea than the extract alone. Considering these results together, it may be inferred that Aframomum melegueta. seed extract may be a useful antidiarrheal agent.     

A comparison of the antidiarrheal and some other pharmacological effects of clonidine,lidamidine, and loperamide in the rat

Clonidine, lidamidine, and loperamide each inhibited castor oil-induced diarrhea in the rat. Clonidine and lidamidine, but not loperamide, also induced diuresis but at doeses above those producing antidiarrheal activity. Clonidine and lidamidine, but not loperamide, produced autonomic and central effects including piloerection, hypotonia, exopthalmus and ataxia at doeses similar to those producing antidiarrheal activity. These data suggest that only loperamide possesses selective antidiarrheal activity.     

Presence of antispasmodic, antidiarrheal, antisecretory, calcium antagonist and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory steroidal alkaloids in Sarcococca saligna

The aim of this investigation was to see if the crude extract of Sarcococca saligna (Ss.Cr) contains chemicals with gut function inhibitory activity by using in vitro and in vivo assays. Ss.Cr caused a dose-dependent (0.03 - 3 mg/mL) inhibitory effect on K+-induced contractions in rat stomach fundus, guinea-pig ileum and rabbit jejunum preparations. The calcium channel blocking(CCB) activity was confirmed when Ss.Cr caused a rightward shift in the Ca++ dose-response curves. It also potentiated, at lower do-ses (0.001 - 0.03 mg/mL), the contractile effect of a fixed dose of acetylcholine (ACh), similar to physostigmine, and suppressed the effect of ACh at higher doses (0.3 - 1.0 mg/mL). Both Ss.Cr and physostigmine inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE), in the in vitro assay, confirming the AChE inhibitory activity. In the in vivo studies, Ss.Cr exhibited antidiarrheal and antisecretory activities against castor oil-induced diarrhea and intestinal fluid accumulation in mice. Characteristic steroidal compounds of the plant (saracocine, saracodine, saracorine and alkaloid-C), exhibited a similar combination of AChE inhibitory and CCB activities. Thus this study provides a sound mechanistic base for some of the traditional uses of the plant in hyperactive gut states, in addition to providing the first evidence for verapamil to possess additional AChE inhibitory activity. Furthermore, these characteristic compounds with dual activity may be good candidates for further studies on their usefulness in Alzheimer's disease.     

Antidiarrheal potential of standardized extract of Rhododendron arboreum Smith flowers in experimental animals

Objective:

To investigate standardized ethyl acetate fraction of Rhododendron arboreum (EFRA) flowers for antidiarrheal activity in experimental animals.

Materials and Methods:

A simple sensitive high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) method was used for the determination of hyperin in EFRA. The standardized fraction was investigated for castor oil, magnesium sulfate-induced diarrhea, measurement of gastrointestinal transit using charcoal and castor oil-induced enteropooling.

Results:

The concentration of hyperin in flowers of R. arboreum was found to be 0.148% by HPTLC. Oral administration of EFRA at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg exhibited dose-dependent and significant (P<0.05-0.001) antidiarrheal potential in castor oil and magnesium sulfate-induced diarrhea. EFRA at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg also produced significant (P<0.05-0.001) dose-dependent reduction in propulsive movement in castor oil-induced gastrointestinal transit using charcoal meal in rats. EFRA was found to possess an antienteropooling in castor oil-induced experimental animals by reducing both weight and volume of intestinal content significantly.

Conclusion:

These findings demonstrate that standardized ethyl acetate fraction of R. arboreum flowers has potent antidiarrheal activity thus justifying its traditional use in diarrhea and have great potential as a source for natural health products.KEY WORDS: Antidiarrheal, enteropooling, gastrointestinal motility, high performance thin layer chromatography, Rhododendron arboreum     

穿心莲内酯对小鼠腹泻模型的治疗作用研究

目的 研究穿心莲内酯对番泻叶和蓖麻油所致小鼠腹泻模型的治疗作用.方法 以墨汁推进率为指标,观察穿心莲内酯对小鼠小肠推进性运动的影响;分别采用番泻叶和蓖麻油建立小鼠腹泻模型,观察穿心莲内酯给药组小鼠的一般状态及行为学改变,测定稀便率及腹泻指数,并计算单位长度肠质量,评价穿心莲内酯的抗腹泻作用.结果 穿心莲内酯可减缓小鼠小...     

Synthesis, antispasmodic and antidiarrheal activities of some 1-substituted imidazole derivatives

A series of 1-substituted imidazoles 1a-d and 2a-d were synthesized and screened for antispasmodic and antidiarrheal activities. Antispasmodic activity was tested at various concentrations on isolated tissue preparations; concentration-response curves were plotted and compared with atropine. All compounds were found to inhibit contraction of the guinea pig ileum. Castor oil-induced diarrhea model in rats was used for evaluation of antidiarrheal activity. Parameters such as intestinal transit and volume of intestinal fluid were measured for antidiarrheal activity at 40 mg kg-1 dose and compared with the standard drug loperamide at 6 mg kg-1 dose. Defecation frequency in the test group was found to be significantly lower (p < 0.01) compared to the control group and comparable with that of the standard. The present study reveals that the compounds exert antidiarrheal activity through possible inhibition of intestinal movement and reduction of capillary permeability in the abdominal cavity.     

Antidiarrheal Activity of the Fruits of Vitex doniana. in Laboratory Animals

Abstract

The effect of different doses of the aqueous extract of Vitex doniana. Sweet (Verbenaceae) on acetylcholine and histamine-induced contractions on isolated guinea pig ileum was evaluated. The effect of the extract on intestinal peristalsis and castor oil–induced diarrhea in mice was also studied. The results showed that the extract possess a concentration-dependent inhibition of both acetylcholine and histamine-induced contractions. The extract (at doses of 150–650 mg/kg) also inhibited gastric peristalsis in mice fed charcoal meal and significantly protected mice against castor oil–induced diarrhea. Phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of anthraquinones, flavonoids, saponins, sterols, and tannins. The findings in this study indicate that the aqueous extract of V. doniana. fruits may contain some pharmacologically active components that perhaps will be useful as antidiarrheal agents. The findings have also validated the use of this plant in traditional cure of diarrhea.     

Antisecretory and antimotility activity of Aconitum heterophyllum and its significance in treatment of diarrhea

Aim:

The roots of the plant Aconitum heterophyllum (EAH) are traditionally used for curing hysteria, throat infection, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, diabetes, and diarrhea. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to determine the mechanism involved in the anti-diarrheal activity of roots of A. heterophyllum.

Materials and Methods:

Ant-diarrheal activity of ethanol extract at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg p.o. was evaluated using fecal excretion and castor oil-induced diarrhea models, while optimized dose, that is, 100 mg/kg p.o. was further subjected to small intestinal transit, intestinal fluids accumulation, PGE₂-induced enteropooling and gastric emptying test. To elucidate the probable mechanism, various biochemical parameters and Na⁺, K⁺ concentration in intestinal fluids were also determined. Further, antibacterial activity of extract along with its standardization using aconitine as a marker with the help of HPLC was carried out.

Results:

The results depicted a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in normal fecal output at 100 and 200 mg/kg p.o. of extract after 5^th and 7^th h of treatment. Castor oil-induced diarrhea model demonstrated a ceiling effect at 100 mg/kg p.o. with a protection of 60.185% from diarrhea. EAH at 100 mg/kg p.o. also showed significant activity in small intestinal transit, fluid accumulation, and PGE₂-induced enteropooling models, which also restored the altered biochemical parameters and prevented Na⁺ and K⁺ loss. The extract with 0.0833% w/w of aconitine depicted a potential antibacterial activity of extract against microbes implicated in diarrhea.

Conclusion:

The study concluded antisecretory and antimotility effect of A. heterophyllum, which mediates through nitric oxide path way.KEY WORDS: Aconitum heterophyllum, antibacterial activity, ant-diarrheal activity, castor oil-induced diarrhea, fecal excretion, nitric oxide, PGE₂, small intestinal transit     

Investigation on the gastroprotective and antidiarrhoeal properties of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit extract

The Study was designed to verify the gastroprotective and antidiarrhoeal effects of unripe fruit extract of Aegle marmelos Corr. The gastroprotective function of this extract was evaluated in rats against gastric mucosal damage induced by hypothermic restraint stress, absolute ethanol, and indomethacin, whereas the antidiarrhoeal activity was investigated by studying the influence on gastrointestinal transit as measured by a charcoal marker and on castor oil-induced accumulation of intestinal fluid in mice and also on contractile responses evoked by acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin, and barium chloride in isolated guinea-pig ileum, the results demonstrated that pretreatment of animals with unripe fruit extract (50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) produces a significant inhibition of gastric lesion induced by ethanol but not those induced by restraint stress or indomethacin and suggest a probable involvement of a prostaglandin-independent mechanism of gastroprotection. At similar doses, both the intestinal transit as well as the accumulation of intestinal fluids induced by castor oil in mice were significantly inhibited by raw fruit extract. Furthermore, the extract antagonized the contractile responses evoked by different agonists on guinea-pig ileum in vitro and its inhibitory potential for the drugs are in the order of acetylcholine > histamine > serotonin > barium chloride. Taken together, these results point out a possible antidiarrhoeal effect of unripe fruit extract of A. marmelos Corr., since inhibition of intestinal motility and secretion can control clinical diarrhoea.     

Naloxone-reversible antidiarrheal effects of enkephalinase inhibitors

Thiorphan and acetorphan, two potent inhibitors of enkephalinase (EC 3.4.24.11 membrane-metalloendopeptidase) significantly reduced the castor oil-induced diarrhea in rats when administered intravenously (or orally, for acetorphan) but not when administered intracerebroventricularly. These effects were more marked during the 90 min period following the castor oil challenge but were still significant up to 4-8 h after the latter. Acetorphan was about 6 times more potent than thiorphan. The antidiarrheal activity of both compounds was completely prevented in rats receiving naloxone subcutaneously but not intracerebroventricularly (in the case of thiorphan). In contrast to loperamide, a peripherally acting opiate receptor agonist, the enkephalinase inhibitors did not significantly reduce gastrointestinal transit as measured in the charcoal meal test. The antidiarrheal activity of enkephalinase inhibitors therefore seems attributable to protection of endogenous opioids, presumably outside the brain, and to reduction of intestinal secretion rather than transit.     

Antidiarrhoeal Activity of Leaves of Melastoma malabathricum Linn.

The antidiarrhoeal effect of the water extract of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. (Melastomataceae) leaves were investigated by employing four experimental models of diarrhea in Swiss mice. Melastoma malabathricum water extract treated mice showed significant reduction in the fecal output and protected them from castor oil-induced diarrhoea. The extract also reduced the intestinal fluid secretion induced by magnesium sulphate and gastrointestinal motility after charcoal meal administration in the mice. No mortality and visible signs of general weakness was observed in the mice following the test extract administration up to 2000 mg/kg dose.     

Antidiarrheal,antisecretory, and bronchodilatory activities of Hypericum perforatum

This study describes the antidiarrheal, antisecretory, and bronchodilatory activities of Hypericum perforatum Linn. (Hypericaceae), commonly known as St. John’s wort, to justify its traditional use in the hyperactivity of the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems. The crude extract of Hypericum perforatum (Hp.Cr) at a dose of 500?mg/kg caused 20% protection against castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice and 60% at 1000?mg/kg (p?<?0.05 vs. saline). Hp.Cr at 300 and 1000?mg/kg reduced the castor oil-induced fluid accumulation in mice to 107.0?±?3.3?g (p?<?0.01) and 84.0?±?4.2?g (p?<?0.001) respectively, whereas in the castor oil-treated group, it was 126.9?±?3.9?g. When tested against carbachol (CCh)-mediated bronchoconstriction in rats under anesthesia, Hp.Cr dose-dependently (3–?30?mg/kg) suppressed the CCh (1?μmol/kg)-induced increase in the inspiratory pressure. Thus this study rationalizes the Hypericum perforatum usefulness in overactive gut and airways disorders, such as diarrhea and asthma.     

Anti-Inflammatory,Antipyretic And Antispasmodic Properties Of Chromolaena Odorata

A methanol extract of the leaves of Chromolaena odorata was evaluated for anti-inflammatory effects in the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model as well as for antipyretic activity in mice. The effects of the extract on intestinal transit of charcoal meal and castor oil-induced diarrhoea were also investigated. The extract (50-200 mg/kg) inhibited paw edema in rats and produced significant (p &lt;0.05) reduction in rectal temperature of mice rendered hyperthermic by yeast suspension. Antimotility and antidiarrhoeal effects were produced by the extract in intact mice. This study establishes the out-inflammatory, antipyretic, and anti-spasmodic properties of C. odorata.     

Evaluation of the anti-diarrheal activity of Salvia connivens

Context: Diarrheal disease is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity and accounts for 5–8 million deaths worldwide each year. Salvia connivens Epling (Lamiaceae) is used to treat sore throat, fevers, diarrhea, malaria, and also is used as an antipyretic.

Objective: The present study evaluates the efficacy of S. connivens in the treatment of diarrhea using animal models.

Materials and methods: The anti-diarrheal effect of methanol extract of S. connivens was investigated on mice with castor oil, arachidonic acid (AA) or prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂)-induced diarrhea. On Wistar rats, the activity was evaluated on the intestinal transit and Castor oil-induced enteropooling.

Results: The methanol extract at doses of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200?mg/kg on castor oil-induced diarrhea reduced the diarrhea by 32.3, 41.9, 67.7, 74.2, 83.3, and 100%, respectively. Additionally, this extract, at doses of 200?mg/kg, inhibited AA-induced diarrhea by 100%. The methanol extract produced no effect on PGE₂-induced diarrhea at the same doses. In Wistar rats, at dose of 200?mg/kg, the methanol extract inhibited intestinal transit and decreased the volume of intestinal secretion induced by castor oil.

Discussion: The methanol extract showed anti-diarrheal effect on the animal models used. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, and saponins which may be responsible for this effect. The extract did not cause any mortality or any visible signs of toxicity or differences in food and water uptake were seen.

Conclusions: These results justify the use of S. connivens as an anti-diarrheal agent.