EV71感染并发神经源性肺水肿的研究现状

肠道病毒71型(EV71)感染并发神经源性肺水肿(NPE)是手足口病患儿的重要并发症和主要死因,确切的发病机制尚未完全明了.外周交感神经系统过度兴奋已得到公认,但其确切的中枢定位及机制尚无定论.近年来强调由脑干损伤和(或)全身炎症反应导致的细胞因子的释放增加了肺血管渗透性,在NPE的形成中也起着非常重要的作用.干预措施目前主要以神经系统受累和呼吸、循环衰竭的对症治疗为主,疫苗的探索处于动物实验阶段,应用于临床尚有一定的距离.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as rescue therapy for methadone-induced pulmonary edema

Opioid-induced pulmonary edema has been previously reported, but its mechanism remains unclear. The use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as rescue therapy for methadone-induced pulmonary edema has not been reported in the literature. We describe 2 cases of methadone ingestion complicated by pulmonary edema, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and circulatory failure successfully managed with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.     

重症手足口病并神经源性肺水肿目标性救治措施

目的探讨目标性救治措施在重症手足口病(HFMD)并神经源性肺水肿(NPE)患儿抢救中的价值。方法对109例重症HFMD并NPE患儿采用目标性救治进行抢救治疗。1.一般监测和抢救:监测体温、脉搏、呼吸、血压及尿量、血糖、血气和电解质,建立2条以上静脉通路,应用糖皮质激素、利巴韦林、甘露醇和丙种球蛋白等。2.即刻救治阶段:(1)体位:避免胃内容物反流误吸,利于抢救和呼吸道开放;(2)呼吸道与供氧:开放呼吸道保证通气和换气功能,维持经皮氧饱和度>92%,控制肺出血,肺部听诊细湿啰音明显减少;(3)血压:平均动脉压8.66 kPa左右;(4)血糖:4.4～11.0 mmol.L-1;(5)体温:肛温<38.5℃;(6)液体管理:24 h液体量60～80 mL.kg-1,中心静脉压0.588～1.570 kPa;(7)镇痛镇静:人机合拍,刺激后无躁动,无剧咳;(8)血液系统:维持Hb≥10 g.L-1,血细胞比容≥0.30,防治DIC。结果 98例痊愈,7例在NPE期死亡,4例在肺水肿控制后因脑损伤严重家长放弃治疗后死亡,肺水肿期抢救成功率为93.6%,最终抢救成功率为89.9%。结论救治措施目标性方案为HFMD并NPE的救治提供了系统性、可操作性的救治方案,可显著提高其抢救成功率。     

Sharing features of uncommon respiratory syncytial virus complications in infants

We describe 4 nonconsecutive cases of infants admitted to Catholic University pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) because of complicated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection during winter RSV outbreaks from the year 2000 to the year 2003. A hyponatremic epileptic status (as in the first case) has been reported by several authors as a rare RSV complication, potentially leading to death. The second infant developed a serious pulmonary edema after a subglottic obstruction (croup) associated with RSV infection. The remaining 2 infants developed a pneumothorax and subcutaneous emphysema while breathing spontaneously during an RSV bronchiolitis. In all infants, a full recovery and PICU discharge was achieved despite the need for mechanical ventilation in cases 1 and 2. Increased intrapleural negative pressure or its combination with hypoxia/hypercapnia has been suggested as the common factor possibly joining these different clinical pictures.     

肠道病毒71型重症手足口病致神经源性肺水肿的发病机制及治疗进展

重症手足口病是一种由肠道病毒引起的急性传染病,多发生于学龄前期儿童,肠道病毒71型是其主要病原.少数重症手足口病可累及神经系统和呼吸循环系统,引起脑干脑炎、神经源性肺水肿、肺出血、心肌炎等严重并发症.神经源性肺水肿是肠道病毒71型累及中枢神经系统后出现的急性肺水肿,临床上以进行性呼吸困难和持续低氧血症为特点,早期可仅有心率增快、血压升高等非特异性表现,诊断十分困难.当出现明显气促、大量泡沫痰、双肺湿啰音时,病死率极高.尽管重症手足口病的治疗手段不断进步,但神经源性肺水肿的病因及调控网络较复杂,导致临床疗效欠佳.因此,密切观察、早期诊断、合理治疗对改善预后有重要意义.该文就肠道病毒71型重症手足口病致神经源性肺水肿的发病机制及治疗进展进行阐述.     

Obstructive total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage

Obstructive total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage (TAPVD) has a florid presentation in the neonatal period from the resulting pulmonary edema. A complete anatomical and functional diagnosis is usually possible by transthoracic color Doppler echocardiography, and cardiac catheterization with its attendant risks can usually be avoided in the sick neonate. Currently balloon atrial septostomy has a limited role in palliation of these neonates. Corrective surgery on urgent basis has gratifying results and prevents progression of pulmonary vascular occlusive disease. Pulmonary hypertensive crisis in the early post-operative course needs to be avoided and treated vigorously if it were to develop. Late post-operative course can be complicated by anastomotic obstruction or progressive narrowing of the individual pulmonary veins. Although the former can be dealt successfully by re-operation, surgical treatment of the latter is not satisfactory. Balloon dilatation of the obstructed pulmonary venous pathway, native and post-operative, has been reported with equivocal results. Infant heart-lung transplant is a viable option in patients with diffusely narrow pulmonary veins or complex TAPVDs.     

重症手足口病机械通气147例临床特点及救治体会

目的 总结我院2009年1月1日至9月6日收治重症手足口病机械通气患儿的临床特征及诊治经过,为减少神经源性肺水肿的发生及降低病死率提供依据.方法 采用回顾性分析方法对147例重症手足口病机械通气患儿的相关信息进行分析.结果 85.0%患儿年龄在3岁以下;100%患儿发热;发热至机械通气时间1～4 d,平均(3.06±1.02)d;神经系统并发症表现为精神差、易惊、肢体抖动、嗜睡;呼吸系统表现为呼吸急促、浅慢、节律不规则;循环系统表现为心率增快或减慢、血压增高或降低、皮肤花斑、四肢皮温低.部分病例出现血白细胞、血糖、血乳酸升高,咽拭子EV71-PCR阳性率34.7%,肛拭子EV71-PCR阳性率42.2%.X线胸片表现为肺纹理增粗、渗出或无明显异常.机械通气患儿死亡3例,病死率为2.0%.结论 本次手足口病流行病情相对重,变化快,并发神经源性肺水肿治疗困难,病死率高.早期识别重症患儿,及时机械通气,并给予综合治疗,可减少神经源性肺水肿的发生,降低病死率.

Abstract：

Objective To summarize the clinical features,diagnostic and treatment experience of severe hand,foot and mouth disease(HFMD) cases receiving mechanical ventilation from Jan 1 to Sep 6,2009 in our hospital and provide reference for reducing the occurrence of neurogenic pulmonary edema(NPE) and mortality. Methods 147 severe HFMD who received mechanical ventilation were analyzed by a retrospective investigation. Results 85.0% children were less than 3 years old and 100% patients had a fever. The mechanical ventilation occurred within 1 to 4 days after fever (3.06 ± 1. 02) d. Neurological complications presented as bad spirit,easy surprised, involuntary movement of the extremities and lethargy. Respiratory system complication presented as polypnea, hypepnea and irregular rhythm. Circulatory system complication presented as heart rate increase or decrease, hypertension or hypotension, piebald skin and low limb temperature.Some of the children had high white blood cell counting,glucose and lactic acid of the blood. The EV71-PCR positive rate was 34. 7% for throat swabs,and 42. 2% for anal swabs. Chest X-ray presented as increased broncho vascular shadows, exudation or nonapparent abnormality. Only three children were dead, fatality rate was 2. 0%. Conclusion The HFMD cases in this outbreak are relatively more serious,and change rapidly. It's difficult to treat as soon as NPE appeared,and it has high fatality rate. Early recognition of critical patients,timely giving mechanical ventilation,and the comprehensive treatment can reduce NPE incidence and the mortality.     

重症手足口病神经源性肺水肿的诊治

重症手足口病可并发神经源性肺水肿,严重者导致死亡.应早期识别神经系统表现,密切关注交感神经亢进表现及神经源性肺水肿的高危因素,监测呼吸频率,及时发现呼吸困难、紫绀和肺部啰音等危重症前兆或表现.严格控制液体负荷、降低颅内压、抑制交感神经功能、保护心脏功能、积极呼吸支持、加强呼吸道管理是治疗神经源性肺水肿的关键.     

Ventilation in special situations. Mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome/acute pulmonary lesion

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which was first described by Ashbaugh in 1967, consists of acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (PaO2/FiO2< or =200) associated with bilateral infiltrates on the chest radiograph caused by noncardiac diffuse pulmonary edema. Although ARDS is of multiple etiology, pulmonary or extrapulmonary injury can produce systemic inflammatory response that perpetuates lung disturbances once the initial cause has been eliminated. Most patients with ARDS require mechanical ventilation. Currently, the old standard is conventional ventilation optimized to protect against ventilator-associated lung injury. Other mechanical ventilation strategies such as high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, which is also based on alveolar recruitment and adequate lung volume, can be useful alternatives. In this review, the level of evidence for other therapies, such as prone positioning, nitric oxide and prostacyclin inhalation, exogenous surfactant, and extracorporeal vital support techniques are also analyzed.     

Cor triatriatum sinister: unusual cause of neonatal respiratory distress]

We report the case of a newborn presenting with neonatal respiratory distress due to acute pulmonary edema, the underlying diagnosis being cor triatriatum sinister. This rare anomaly can be lethal in the short term. However, it can be completely cured surgically provided that diagnosis is made on time.     

Use of echocardiography in the neonatal intensive care unit

The role of echocardiography in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) has rapidly evolved over the last two decades and there are now guidelines to direct Neonatologist Performed Echocardiography (NPE). Expert consensus statements have provided a framework for echocardiography training, scope of practice, and clinical governance structure for neonatologists. Now NPE is routinely being used a standard of care in the NICUs across the world. It is referred to as NPE, targeted neonatal echocardiography, point of care echocardiography or functional echocardiography, depending upon the country's guidelines. The terms are used somewhat interchangeably, but functional echocardiography is aimed less at the identification of structural abnormalities and more at determining cardiac function. Clinical examination and the existing tools for the haemodynamic monitoring in the neonatal intensive care lack sensitivity and specificity, and they are indirect parameters of cardiovascular well-being. Functional echocardiography provides direct assessment of haemodynamics at bedside. It is now widely regarded as a useful extension to the clinical examination and other monitoring tools in the critically ill infant. This review article provides an overview of the five most common applications of NPE in the neonatal intensive care unit; diagnosis and haemodynamic evaluation of PDA, diagnosis and evaluation of pulmonary hypertension, diagnosis of pericardial effusion and guide pericardiocentesis, assessment of cardiac functions and fluid volume status (pre-load). It describes how PE can be used by the healthcare professionals to optimize care for sick neonates with haemodynamic instability.     

Adult respiratory distress syndrome in pediatric patients. II. Management

Adult respiratory distress syndrome, a clinical syndrome of respiratory failure that follows many kinds of insults, often in patients with no previous pulmonary disease, occurs in pediatric patients. This group of disorders has a typical clinical, pathologic, and pathophysiologic course, the hallmark of which is injury to the alveolar-capillary membrane with increased permeability of the pulmonary vasculature and pulmonary edema. Resolution may occur at any stage, but most patients die and many develop chronic lung disease requiring respiratory support for weeks or months. Multiple organ system failure, secondary infection, and irreversible respiratory dysfunction are responsible for the poor outcome. The underlying mechanisms that relate injury to the development of pulmonary disease are unclear. In some cases there may be direct injury to the lung, but in others, such as septic shock, there are mediators that link the initial insult to the subsequent lung injury. The leukocyte may have a central role in this process, although this is uncertain. Therapeutic measures needed to support the patient, especially increased inspired oxygen, are additional factors in the progression of lung disease. Current therapy, as summarized in Table II, is primarily supportive. Efforts to treat ARDS after it is clinically apparent have been disappointing. The pathogenic mechanisms that lead to ARDS are probably well advanced by the time the syndrome is diagnosed on the basis of the usual clinical signs. Therefore an emphasis on understanding the mechanisms of lung injury so that specific markers can be used to predict which patients will develop ARDS, allowing intervention in the early stages of the process, may prove rewarding.     

肺源性与肺外源性急性呼吸窘迫综合征呼吸力学的异同及机械通气策略

急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)按其病因可分为肺源性ARDS和肺外源性ARDS.肺源性ARDS早期多为肺泡损害,而肺外源性ARDS多为间质性肺水肿.肺源性ARDS患儿肺顺应性降低,而肺外源性ARDS由于腹腔内压增高其胸壁顺应性更低.肺外源性ARDS中应用呼气末正压、肺复张手法及俯卧位通气效果更好,而两者的小潮气量通气效果相似.     

肺源性与肺外源性急性呼吸窘迫综合征呼吸力学的异同及机械通气策略

急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)按其病因可分为肺源性ARDS和肺外源性ARDS.肺源性ARDS早期多为肺泡损害,而肺外源性ARDS多为间质性肺水肿.肺源性ARDS患儿肺顺应性降低,而肺外源性ARDS由于腹腔内压增高其胸壁顺应性更低.肺外源性ARDS中应用呼气末正压、肺复张手法及俯卧位通气效果更好,而两者的小潮气量通气效果相似.     

肺源性与肺外源性急性呼吸窘迫综合征呼吸力学的异同及机械通气策略

急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)按其病因可分为肺源性ARDS和肺外源性ARDS.肺源性ARDS早期多为肺泡损害,而肺外源性ARDS多为间质性肺水肿.肺源性ARDS患儿肺顺应性降低,而肺外源性ARDS由于腹腔内压增高其胸壁顺应性更低.肺外源性ARDS中应用呼气末正压、肺复张手法及俯卧位通气效果更好,而两者的小潮气量通气效果相似.     

Acute pulmonary edema complicating tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy

In summary, we have presented two cases to illustrate the problem of postoperative pulmonary edema following tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Furthermore, we have discussed the difficulty in predicting those patients who will develop this complication. Because of the potential seriousness and unpredictability of acute pulmonary edema following tonsillectomy for chronic obstruction, it is important that medical personnel, including pediatricians caring for patients after tonsillectomy, be able to readily recognize this phenomenon of acute onset of congestive heart failure and treat it rapidly with diuretics, continuous positive airway pressure, and respiratory support as needed.     

Surfactant Therapy for Maternal Blood Aspiration: An Unusual Cause of Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Surfactant replacement therapy is the main treatment of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. However, surfactant therapy has been shown to be effective in the treatment of other diseases causing neonatal respiratory diseases such as pulmonary hemorrhage, meconium aspiration syndrome, pneumonia/sepsis, pulmonary edema or acute lung injury resulting a secondary surfactant deficiency (SSD). Rarely, as like as in the present patient, exogenous blood aspiration such as breast milk or formula aspiration may lead to SSD. Blood in alveolus leads to a significant biochemical and functional disturbance of the surfactant system and inhibits surfactant production. Here, the authors report a preterm infant of 33?wk gestational age with secondary surfactant deficiency due to maternal blood aspiration because of abruptio placentae. She was received two courses of beractant, a natural bovine surfactant, therapy in 24?h. She was extubated on second day and did not require oxygen on 4(th) day. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of SSD due to maternal blood aspiration treated with surfactant. In conditions such as abruptio placentae, infant should be protected from blood aspiration and if respiratory distress occurs, surfactant inhibition and need for surfactant administration should be considered.     

Bilateral reexpansion pulmonary edema associated with pleural empyema: a case report

Reexpansion pulmonary edema is an uncommon complication following rapid reexpansion of the lungs. The risk increases with a prolonged duration of pulmonary collapse, the amount of drained liquid or air, and with decreased time of draining. Treatment is supportive. In general, the prognosis is favorable. A nine-year-old boy was presented with fever, cough, and respiratory distress. Pneumonia and left-sided pleural empyema were determined and a chest tube was emplaced. Clinical deterioration occurred in just a few minutes following chest tube insertion. His chest radiography revealed a pulmonary edema in the left lung. Despite mechanical ventilation, antibiotics, and diuretic treatment, no significant improvement occurred. Acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ dysfunctions developed in the follow-up. The patient died on day 5 of hospitalization. In this report, a complicated reexpansion pulmonary edema with a lathal outcome in a 9-year-old child is presented.     

负压性肺水肿

负压性肺水肿是儿科常见的疾病,也容易被忽视,其发生源自上气道梗阻造成的胸内负压变化的绝对值加大,从而造成相应的呼吸生理、血流动力学改变,常见的原因包括喉炎、百日咳、气管异物、阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停等.因此熟悉负压性肺水肿的常见诱因,及时进行相关治疗,是救治的关键.     

EDEMA FORMATION IN THE LUNGS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO NEONATAL RESPIRATORY DISTRESS

Bland, R. D. (Cardiovascular Research Institute and Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, Ca, USA). Edema formation in the lungs and its relationship to neonatal respiratory distress. Acta Paediatr Scand, Suppl. 305: 92–99, 1983.—Pulmonary edema is an important feature of many newborn lung diseases, including respiratory distress from severe perinatal asphyxia, heart failure, hyaline membrane disease, pneumonitis from group B β–hemolytic streptococcus, and chronic lung disease (bronchopulmonary dysplasia). Neonatal pulmonary edema often results from increased filtration pressure in the microcirculation of the lungs. This occurs during sustained hypoxia, in left ventricular failure associated with congenital heart disease or myocardial dysfunction, following excessive intravascular infusions of blood, colloid, fat, or electrolyte solution, and in conditions that increase pulmonary blood flow. Low intravascular protein osmotic pressure from hypoproteinemia may predispose infants to pulmonary edema. Hypoproteinemia is common in infants who are born prematurely. Large intravascular infusions of protein-free fluid further decrease the concentration of protein in plasma and thereby facilitate edema formation. Lymphatic obstruction by air (pulmonary interstitial emphysema) or fibrosis (long-standing lung disease) also may contribute to the development of edema. Bacteremia, endotoxemia. and prolonged oxygen breathing injure the pulmonary microvascular endothelium and cause proteinrich fluid to accumulate in the lungs. The risk of neonatal pulmonary edema can be reduced by several therapeutic measures designed to lessen filtration pressure, increase plasma protein osmotic pressure, and prevent or reduce the severity of lung injury.