Evidence for neuroprotective effect of sulbutiamine against oxygen-glucose deprivation in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons

Hippocampus is one of the earliest brain regions that gets affected by ischemia, however, no pharmacological therapy exists yet that can fully counteract the ischemic damage. Here we study the effect of sulbutiamine, a synthetic thiamine analogue that can cross the blood-brain barrier easily, on hippocampal neurons under an in vitro model of ischemia, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). We find that exposure to OGD in the presence of sulbutiamine significantly increases neuronal viability and enhances electrophysiological properties such as excitatory synaptic transmissions and intrinsic neuronal membrane input resistance in a concentration-dependent manner. Overall, here we report, for the first time, the neuroprotective evidence of sulbutiamine on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons under OGD, which may have beneficial implications as a possible therapeutic agent/substance against ischemic insult.     

氯胺酮的神经保护作用及其对p38蛋白磷酸化激活的影响

目的 :研究NMDA受体拮抗剂氯胺酮对大鼠海马脑片缺糖缺氧 (OGD)损伤的神经保护作用及其对p38蛋白磷酸化激活的影响。方法 :采用大鼠海马脑片体外OGD损伤模型 ,TTC染色抽提法观察氯胺酮对海马脑片OGD损伤时的神经保护作用 ,免疫印迹法研究“缺血再灌注”不同时间大鼠海马脑片中p38磷酸化激活变化情况 ,以及氯胺酮对p38磷酸化激活的影响。结果 :氯胺酮显著抑制海马脑片OGD损伤所致的A值降低 ,p38蛋白在缺血再灌注后磷酸化激活增加 ,再灌注 15min后开始上升 ,2h仍可见持续表达。氯胺酮剂量为 5、10 μmol·L-1时 ,能显著抑制p38蛋白磷酸化激活 (P <0 .0 5 )。结论 :氯胺酮具有一定的神经保护作用 ,其保护作用可能与抑制海马神经元p38蛋白的磷酸化激活有关。     

Neuroprotective effects of oxysophocarpine on neonatal rat primary cultured hippocampal neurons injured by oxygen-glucose deprivation and reperfusion

Context: Oxysophocarpine (OSC), a quinolizidine alkaloid extracted from leguminous plants of the genus Robinia, is traditionally used for various diseases including neuronal disorders.

Objective: This study investigated the protective effects of OSC on neonatal rat primary-cultured hippocampal neurons were injured by oxygen–glucose deprivation and reperfusion (OGD/RP).

Materials and methods: Cultured hippocampal neurons were exposed to OGD for 2?h followed by a 24?h RP. OSC (1, 2, and 5?μmol/L) and nimodipine (Nim) (12?μmol/L) were added to the culture after OGD but before RP. The cultures of the control group were not exposed to OGD/RP. MTT and LDH assay were used to evaluate the protective effects of OSC. The concentration of intracellular-free calcium [Ca²⁺]_i and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were determined to evaluate the degree of neuronal damage. Morphologic changes of neurons following OGD/RP were observed with a microscope. The expression of caspase-3 and caspase-12 mRNA was examined by real-time quantitative PCR.

Results: The IC₅₀ of OSC was found to be 100?μmol/L. Treatment with OSC (1, 2, and 5?μmol/L) attenuated neuronal damage (p?p?p?2+]_i (p?p?p?Discussion and conclusion: The results suggested that OSC has significant neuroprotective effects that can be attributed to inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis.     

乙酰葛根素对氧糖剥离诱导海马神经元凋亡的影响

目的研究新型异黄酮类化合物乙酰葛根素对氧糖剥离神经元的保护作用及其机制。方法采用氧糖剥离建立细胞模型。DAPI法观察神经元凋亡率,RT-PCR法检测NF-κBp65、HIF-1α及p53mRNA的表达,Western blot法测定Hsp70蛋白的含量及乙酰葛根素对其的影响。结果与模型组相比较,乙酰葛根素可以减少凋亡细胞数;降低NF-κBp65、HIF-1α及p53mRNA表达;乙酰葛根素(低,中和高浓度组)增加Hsp70蛋白的表达。结论乙酰葛根素降低NF-κBp65、HIF-1α、p53的表达和升高Hsp70蛋白表达。     

黄芪有效成分对缺氧缺糖/复氧复糖大鼠海马神经元cyt-c、CcO表达的影响

目的观察黄芪有效成分对缺氧缺糖/复氧复糖大鼠海马神经元cyt-c及CcO表达的影响,探讨黄芪有效成分防治海马神经元凋亡可能的作用机制。方法取培养8 d的大鼠海马神经元,进行缺氧缺糖0.5 h,再分别复氧复糖0、0.5、2、6、24、72和120 h。实验分4组:正常对照组、模型组(缺氧缺糖/复氧复糖组)、黄芪注射液溶剂对照组和黄芪注射液组。分别采用细胞免疫化学法、Western blot法检测海马神经元cyt-c蛋白的表达、RT-PCR法检测CcO mRNA的表达。结果模型组在各个时间点cyt-c蛋白和CcO mRNA表达均较正常对照组增加(P<0.05);与模型组相比,黄芪有效成分组在各个时间点cyt-c蛋白和CcO mRNA表达均降低(P<0.05),而黄芪注射液溶剂对照组则无变化(P>0.05)。结论黄芪注射液可抑制缺氧缺糖/复氧复糖大鼠海马神经元cyt-c、CcO的表达,从而抑制缺氧缺糖/复氧复糖后大鼠海马神经元的凋亡。     

ERK1/2的激活参与七氟醚预处理对大鼠海马脑片缺氧无糖损伤的保护作用

目的观察ERK1/2的激活在七氟醚预处理对大鼠海马脑片缺氧无糖损伤保护中的作用。方法采用脑片灌流及电生理技术,细胞外记录海马CA1区的顺向群锋电位(OPS);利用2,3,5-三苯基氯化四氮唑(TTC)染色定量比色方法分析脑片损伤程度。结果用4%七氟醚预处理海马脑片,可延迟OPS的消失时间,提高复氧后OPS的恢复程度和恢复率。以ERK1/2特异性抑制剂PD98059(50μmol.L-1)预处理海马脑片,可以取消七氟醚的作用。单独使用PD98059对OPS无明显影响。七氟醚预处理组组织损伤百分率明显低于其它各组。结论ERK1/2的激活参与了七氟醚预处理对大鼠海马脑片缺氧无糖损伤的保护作用。     

Aluminum chloride induces retinal changes in the rat.

We studied rat retinal changes due to aluminum (Al) toxicosis with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) and an energy dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDXA). Normal 4-week-old Wistar Kyoto rats were divided randomly into Al toxicosis and control groups. The Al toxicosis group was injected ip with 0.3 ml of 4% aluminum chloride (AlCl3) per day every day for 16 weeks. The retina was examined with a TEM and EDXA at 8, 12, and 16 weeks after starting injections with AlCl3. There was a statistically significant increase in the serum Al concentration in the Al toxicosis group (p < 0.001). We observed prominent pathologic changes at 16 weeks after the first injections. Thin retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and disappearance of the photoreceptor outer and inner segments and nuclei were observed. There were high-density irregular granules in the outer and inner plexiform layers and in the inner nuclear layer. We found dense granules in the cells, which remained between the RPE and the inner nuclear layer. EDXA detected Al in the high-density irregular granules in these areas. Al injected ip caused accumulation of Al in the rat retina and the destruction of photoreceptor cells. These findings indicate that Al is toxic to the retina.     

Cadmium induces direct morphological changes in mesangial cell culture

The cadmium produced by industrial and agricultural practice represents a major environmental pollutant which may induce severe damage, especially in the kidney where cadmium accumulates. While cadmium is known to severely impair renal tubular functions, glomerular structures are also potential targets. The present study investigated the effects of cadmium on glomerular mesangial cell cultures after short- and long-term exposures, requiring for each endpoint specific culture conditions. After 30 min exposure to 1 microM CdCl(2), used as non-lethal concentration, 0.14 ng/microg proteins of cadmium was internalized by the cells as evaluated by atomic emision spectrometry and induced a significant, cell surface reduction (8.9+/-1.9%). These morphological changes could be correlated to smooth muscle alpha-actin disorganization, without quantitative change in its protein expression level as evaluated by Western-blot and Northern-blot analysis (SMAmRNA/28sRNA, 1.78 CdCl(2) vs. 1.42 control). For longer exposure times, in complex medium, cadmium uptake was efficient (0.36 ng/microg proteins) and induced changes in the actin cytoskeleton with no loss of cell membrane integrity. This study suggests that cultured mesangial cells provide an alternative model to study the effect of cadmium, and underlines the importance of using well-defined conditions to study further intracellular mechanisms.     

二氮嗪预处理大鼠海马脑片抗缺氧无糖损伤作用与激活PKC-ERK1/2通路有关

目的观察二氮嗪预处理对大鼠海马脑片缺氧无糖(oxygenglucosedeprivation,OGD)损伤的作用及PKC、ERK1/2抑制剂对其的影响。方法建立大鼠海马脑片OGD损伤模型,分别以25、50、100μmol·L-1二氮嗪灌流海马脑片30min,或分别用mitoKATP通道、PKC、ERK1/2抑制剂5HD、chelerythrine、U0126灌流30min,再用二氮嗪(100μmol·L-1)预处理,观察OGD13min、复氧1h后顺向群峰电位(orthodromicpopulationspike,OPS)的变化。结果二氮嗪预处理组(50、100μmol·L-1)OPS消失时间明显延长,复氧供糖后OPS恢复良好;二氮嗪(100μmol·L-1)预处理抗OGD损伤作用可被5HD完全取消,可被chelerythrine或U0126部分取消。结论mitoKATP通道特异性开放剂二氮嗪预处理有抗海马脑片OGD损伤作用,该效应与激活PKCERK信号通路有关。     

Role of adenosine A3 receptors on CA1 hippocampal neurotransmission during oxygen-glucose deprivation episodes of different duration

The role of adenosine A3 receptors in synaptic transmission under severe (7 min) and shorter (2-5 min) ischemic conditions, obtained by oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), was investigated in rat hippocampal slices. The effects of selective A3 agonists or antagonists were examined on field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) extracellularly recorded at the dendritic level of the CA1 pyramidal region. The novel, selective A3 antagonist LJ1251 ((2R,3R,4S)-2-(2-chloro-6-(3-iodobenzylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl)tetrahydrothiophene-3,4-diol, 0.1-10 nM) protected hippocampal slices from irreversible fEPSP depression induced by severe OGD and prevented or delayed the appearance of anoxic depolarization. Similar results were obtained when severe OGD was carried out with a long, receptor-desensitizing exposure to various selective A3 agonists: 5'-N-methylcarboxamidoadenosine derivatives Cl-IB-MECA (N6-(3-iodobenzyl)-2-chloro), VT72 (N6-methoxy-2-phenylethynyl), VT158 (N6-methoxy-2-phenylethynyl), VT160 (N6-methoxy-2-(2-pyridinyl)-ethynyl), and VT163 (N6-methoxy-2-p-acetylphenylethynyl) and AR132 (N6-methyl-2-phenylethynyladenosine). The selective A3 antagonist MRS1523 (3-propyl-6-ethyl-5-[(ethylthio)carbonyl]-2-phenyl-4-propyl-3-pyridine carboxylate, 100 nM) reduced fEPSP depression evoked by 2-min OGD and induced a faster recovery of fEPSP amplitude after 5-min OGD. Similar results were obtained for 2- or 5-min OGD applied in the presence of each of the A3 agonists tested. Shorter exposure to A3 agonists significantly delayed the recovery of fEPSP amplitude after 5-min OGD. This indicates that A3 receptors, stimulated by selective A3 agonists, undergo desensitization during OGD. It is inferred that CA1 hippocampal A3 receptors stimulated by adenosine released during brief ischemia (2 and 5 min) might exert A1-like protective effects on neurotransmission. Severe ischemia would transform the A3 receptor-mediated effects from protective to injurious.     

盐酸法舒地尔对体外培养星形胶质细胞氧糖剥夺损伤的保护作用

目的研究盐酸法舒地尔(FH)对大鼠皮质星形胶质细胞氧糖剥夺损伤(OGD)的保护作用。方法传代培养的大鼠皮质星形胶质细胞与无糖Na2S2O42 mmol·L-1孵育4 h,制备OGD模型。FH 5和10μmol·L-1在OGD前2 h加入。采用噻唑蓝(MTT)法检测细胞存活;比色法检测乳酸脱氢酶(LDH);乙炔基脱氧尿苷(Ed U)掺入法检测星形胶质细胞DNA合成;Hoechst染色和丫啶橙(AO)/溴化乙啶(EB)荧光双染观察细胞凋亡;2,7-二氯氢化荧光素(DHCF-DA)荧光染色和硝基四氮唑蓝(NBT)还原实验检测细胞内活性氧(ROS)水平。结果与正常对照组比较,OGD模型组星形胶质细胞存活率为(24±6)%,下降了4倍(P<0.01);OGD模型组LDH释放量显著升高至(366±7)U·L-1(P<0.01)。加入FH 5和10μmol·L-1的预处理组,细胞存活率分别上升至(42±5)%和(43±5)%,LDH释放分别下降至290±18和(268±20)U·L-1(P<0.01),细胞Ed U阳性率由OGD模型组的(47±6)%,分别下降到(35±6)%和(29±5)%(P<0.01)。Hoechst染色及AO/EB双染实验结显示,FH能显著减少OGD损伤后细胞的凋亡及坏死,使晚期凋亡细胞比例减少(P<0.05);DCFH-DA荧光和NBT还原实验显示,FH降低OGD损伤后ROS水平,且FH10μmol·L-1的预处理组降低的幅度比5μmol·L-1的预处理组更明显,但两组差异无统计学意义。结论FH对传代培养的大鼠皮质星形胶质细胞OGD具有保护作用,其作用机制可能与降低细胞内ROS水平有关。     

Cytoprotective effect of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in rat brain slices subjected to reoxygenation after oxygen-glucose deprivation

The aim of this study was to assess the possible neuroprotective effect of the main nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in an experimental model of hypoxia-reoxygenation in rat brain slices. After reoxygenation the increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) efflux was inhibited by nimesulide, celecoxib and meloxicam with an IC(50) in the 10(-6)M range, by flurbiprofen, ibuprofen and diclofenac in the 10(-5)M range, and by salicylic acid, indomethacin, acetylsalicylic acid and mefenamic acid the 10(-4)M range. The effect of other NSAIDs was seen with an IC(50) greater than 10(-3)M. A statistically significant linear correlation between the values of LDH efflux and prostaglandin E(2) was found for NSAIDs whose IC(50) of cytoprotection (LDH efflux) was below 10(-4)M. The concentration of interleukin 10 was increased with nimesulide, celecoxib, meloxicam, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen and diclofenac. Flurbiprofen and diclofenac significantly inhibited the production of lipid peroxides. The increase in brain nitrite levels was significantly reduced with celecoxib, flurbiprofen, diclofenac and salicylic acid. Concentrations of 3-nitrotyrosine were significantly reduced with celecoxib, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, salicylic acid and ketorolac. In conclusion, NSAIDs with the greatest cytoprotective effect (nimesulide, celecoxib and meloxicam) may exert their effect mainly through the blockade of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity. Other compounds with neuroprotective activity may complement their lower anti-COX-2 effect with a slight increase in interleukin 10 and reduced oxidative and nitrosative stress in our model of hypoxia-reoxygenation in rat brain slices.     

Protective effect of donepezil in a primary culture of rat cortical neurons exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation

Donepezil hydrochloride (donepezil: (+/-)-2-[(1-benzylpiperidin-4-yl)methyl]-5,6-dimethoxy-indan-1-one monohydrochloride) is a potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used for treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Although acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are used as a symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer's disease, it is not clear whether or not they are effective against progressive degeneration of neuronal cells. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of donepezil and other acetylcholinesterase inhibitors used for treatment of Alzheimer's disease, i.e., galantamine, rivastigmine, and tacrine. As a neurodegenerative model, we used rat cortical neurons exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) released into the culture medium was measured as a marker of neuronal cell damage. First, the effects of donepezil (10 microM) on three different treatment schedules (from 12 h before to 24 h after oxygen-glucose deprivation (pre-12 h), from 1 h before to 24 h after oxygen-glucose deprivation (pre-1 h) and from 1 h after to 24 h after oxygen-glucose deprivation (post-1 h)) were compared. The pre-12-h treatment most effectively inhibited LDH release. The protective effect of donepezil was confirmed morphologically. Next, the effects of donepezil and the other three acetylcholinesterase inhibitors were compared under the pre-12-h treatment condition. Donepezil (0.1, 1, and 10 microM) significantly decreased LDH release in a concentration-dependent manner. However, galantamine (1, 10, and 100 microM), tacrine (0.1, 1, and 10 microM), and rivastigmine (0.1, 1, and 10 microM) did not significantly decrease LDH release. The neuroprotective effect of donepezil was not antagonized by scopolamine or mecamylamine. These results demonstrate that donepezil has a protective effect against oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced injury to rat primary cultured cerebral cortical neurons. Besides, it is suggested that this effect of donepezil is independent of muscarinic cholinergic system and nicotinic cholinergic system. Thus, donepezil is expected to have a protective effect against progressive degeneration of brain neuronal cells in ischemic cerebrovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease.     

H2受体介导组胺对大鼠海马缺氧缺糖诱导细胞水肿及活性降低的保护作用

目的探讨组胺对海马脑片缺血诱导细胞水肿及活性降低的作用，以及与受体亚型的关系。方法大鼠海马脑片以缺氧缺糖(OGD)诱导缺血损伤后，实时检测CA1区透光度变化评价细胞水肿；并测定2,3,5-三苯基氯化四氮唑(TTC)产物甲，评价脑片活性。观察不同浓度组胺的作用，以及组胺受体拮抗剂对组胺作用的影响。结果 组胺(0.01～10 μmol·L^-1)明显抑制OGD诱导的海马脑片透光度增加，并提高脑片活性。H₁受体拮抗剂苯海拉明(0.1～10 μmol·L^-1)不影响组胺的作用，H₂受体拮抗剂西咪替丁(0.1～10 μmol·L^-1)则部分拮抗组胺的保护作用。结论组胺对大鼠海马脑片缺血诱导细胞水肿及活性降低有保护作用，该作用与H₂受体有关。     

Up-regulation of TNF-alpha convertase (TACE/ADAM17) after oxygen-glucose deprivation in rat forebrain slices

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a major immunomodulatory and proinflammatory cytokine which is shed in its soluble form by a membrane-anchored zinc protease, identified as a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) called TNF-alpha convertase (TACE; ADAM17). The role of this protease in the adult nervous system remains poorly understood. During cerebral ischemia and subsequent reperfusion, expression and release of TNF-alpha have been shown. We have investigated the expression and activity of TACE in an in vitro model of brain ischemia consisting of rat forebrain slices exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). OGD caused the release of TNF-alpha, an effect which was inhibited by a hydroxamate-based metalloprotease inhibitor, BB-3103, with an IC(50) of 0.1 microM, suggesting that TNF-alpha release results selectively from TACE activity. Assay of TACE enzymatic activity on a fluorescein-labelled peptide spanning the cleavage site in pro-TNF-alpha, as well as Western blot and RT-PCR analyses showed that TACE is present in control forebrain and, more interestingly, that TACE expression is increased in OGD-exposed tissue. TACE enzymatic activity from OGD-exposed slices was significantly inhibited by cycloheximide, suggesting that de novo synthesis of TACE contributes to TNF-alpha release after ischaemia. Moreover, it was also inhibited by bisindolylmaleimide I, indicating that TACE activity is regulated by PKC. These findings posed the question of what was its function therein. Among other actions, TNF-alpha has been described to be involved in the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), a high-output NOS isoform associated to cellular damage, but the link between TNF-alpha release after brain ischaemia and iNOS expression in this condition has not been shown. We have now found that iNOS expression in OGD-subjected brain slices is inhibited by BB-3103 at concentrations below 1 microM, indicating that shedding of TNF-alpha by TACE plays a necessary part in the induction of this NOS isoenzyme after OGD. Taken together, these data demonstrate that (1) TACE/ADAM17 activity accounts for the majority of TNF-alpha shedding after OGD in rat forebrain slices, (2) an increase in TACE expression contributes, at least in part, to the rise in TNF-alpha after OGD and (3) iNOS expression in OGD-subjected brain slices results from TACE activity and subsequent increase in TNF-alpha levels.     

Intrinsic sensory deprivation induced by neonatal capsaicin treatment induces changes in rat brain and behaviour of possible relevance to schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is considered to be a neurodevelopmental disorder with origins in the prenatal or neonatal period. Brains from subjects with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles, reduced cortical thickness (CT) and increased neuronal density in the prefrontal cortex compared with those from normal subjects. Subjects with schizophrenia have reduced pain sensitivity and niacin skin flare responses, suggesting that capsaicin-sensitive primary afferent neurons might be abnormal in schizophrenia. This study tested the hypothesis that intrinsic somatosensory deprivation, induced by neonatal capsaicin treatment, causes changes in the brains of rats similar to those found in schizophrenia. Wistar rats were treated with capsaicin, 50 mg kg(-1) subcutaneously, or vehicle (control) at 24-36 h of life. At 5-7 weeks behavioural observations were made, and brains removed, fixed and sectioned. The mean body weight of capsaicin-treated rats was not significantly different from control, but the mean brain weight of male, but not female, rats, was significantly lower than control. Capsaicin-treated rats were hyperactive compared with controls. The hyperactivity was abolished by haloperidol. Coronal brain sections of capsaicin-treated rats had smaller cross-sectional areas, reduced CT, larger ventricles and aqueduct, smaller hippocampal area and reduced corpus callosum thickness, than brain sections from control rats. Neuronal density was increased in several cortical areas and the caudate putamen, but not in the visual cortex. It is concluded that neonatal capsaicin treatment of rats produces brain changes that are similar to those found in brains of subjects with schizophrenia.     

曲古抑菌素A对SH-SY5Y细胞缺氧/缺糖损伤的保护作用

目的 探讨组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂曲古抑菌素A(trichostatin A,TSA)对人神经母细胞瘤细胞(SH-SY5Y)缺氧/缺糖 (oxygen-glucose deprivation,OGD) 损伤的保护作用及其可能机制.方法 采用化学方法建立SH-SY5Y细胞不同时间(1、2、4、6和8 h)持续性OGD损伤模型,MTT法检测细胞活性,以评估持续性OGD损伤对SH-SY5Y细胞的损伤程度.继而观察TSA(10、20、40、80 nmol·L-1)对OGD诱导的神经元损伤的影响,实验指标如下:倒置显微镜观察细胞形态学变化,MTT检测TSA对细胞活性的影响,Propidium iodide(PI)和Hoechst 33258染色检测细胞凋亡与坏死情况,荧光显微镜检测各组细胞内活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)含量和线粒体膜电位(mitochondrion membrane potential,MMP)的变化.结果 OGD损伤2 h,模型组的细胞活性和MMP水平较对照组明显降低,并随OGD时间的延长而变化越明显.而ROS含量较对照组明显升高,Hoechst 和PI双染检测也发现染色质凝聚,核碎裂,凋亡小体产生,并随OGD时间的延长,凋亡和坏死细胞的数量增加.与模型组相比,40 nmol·L-1 TSA能明显提高OGD诱导的神经元的活性,降低细胞内ROS含量,以及提高MMP水平.结论 TSA对OGD诱导SH-SY5Y细胞缺氧/缺糖损伤具有明显的保护作用,其保护机制可能与降低细胞内ROS水平及维持MMP的高能状态有关.     

Toluene induces rapid and reversible rise of hippocampal glutamate and taurine neurotransmitter levels in mice

Toluene, a widely used aromatic organic solvent, has been well characterized as a neurotoxic chemical. Although the neurobehavioral effects of toluene have been studied substantially, the mechanisms involved are not clearly understood. Hippocampus, which is one of the limbic areas of brain associated with neuronal plasticity, and learning and memory functions, may be a principal target of toluene. In the present study, to establish a mouse model for investigating the effects of acute toluene exposure on the amino acid neurotransmitter levels in the hippocampus, in vivo microdialysis study was performed in freely moving mice after a single intraperitoneal administration of toluene (150 and 300 mg/kg). Amino acid neurotransmitters in microdialysates were measured by a high performance liquid chromatography system. The extracellular levels of glutamate and taurine were rapidly and reversibly increased within 30 min after the toluene administration in a dose-dependent manner and returned to the basal level by 1h. Conversely, the extracellular level of glycine and GABA were stable, and no significant change was observed after the toluene administration. To further investigate the brain toluene level in the hippocampus of toluene-administered mice, we used a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) method and examined the time course changes of toluene in the hippocampus of living mice. The brain toluene level reached the peak at 30 min after injection and returned to the basal level after 2h. In the present study, we observed the relationship between brain toluene levels and amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate and taurine levels in the hippocampus. Therefore, we suggest that toluene may mediate its action through the glutamatergic and taurinergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus of freely moving mice.