Prediction of vesicoureteral reflux after a first febrile urinary tract infection in children: validation of a clinical decision rule

Aims

To test the reproducibility of a highly sensitive clinical decision rule proposed to predict vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) after a first febrile urinary tract infection in children. This rule combines clinical (family history of uropathology, male gender, young age), biological (raised C reactive protein), and radiological (urinary tract dilation on renal ultrasound) predictors in a score, and provides 100% sensitivity.

Methods

A retrospective hospital based cohort study included all children, 1 month to 4 years old, with a first febrile urinary tract infection. The sensitivities and specificities of the rule at the two previously proposed score thresholds (⩽0 and ⩽5) to predict respectively, all‐grade or grade ⩾3 VUR, were calculated.

Results

A total of 149 children were included. VUR prevalence was 25%. The rule yielded 100% sensitivity and 3% specificity for all‐grade VUR, and 93% sensitivity and 13% specificity for grade ⩾3 VUR. Some methodological weaknesses explain this lack of reproducibility.

Conclusions

The reproducibility of the previously proposed decision rule was poor and its potential contribution to clinical management of children with febrile urinary tract infection seems to be modest.     

Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the Netherlands in 2003 compared to 1980 and 1997

Objective

To assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children living in the Netherlands and compare the findings with the Third and Fourth National Growth Studies carried out in 1980 and 1997, respectively.

Design and methods

Data were obtained from the child health care system. International cut‐off points for body mass index (BMI) were used to determine overweight and obesity. Cases were weighted for ethnicity and municipality size in such a way that the sample matched the distribution in the general population. The LMS method was used to calculate the age‐related distribution of BMI, and the prevalence was calculated from the fitted distribution.

Patients

Data on 90 071 children aged 4–16 years were routinely collected by 11 community health services during 2002–2004.

Results

On average, 14.5% of the boys and 17.5% of the girls were overweight (including obesity), which is a substantial increase since 1980 (boys 3.9%, girls 6.9%) and 1997 (boys 9.7%, girls 13.0%). Similarly, 2.6% of the boys and 3.3% of the girls aged 4–16 years were obese, which is much higher than in 1980 (boys 0.2%, girls 0.5%) and 1997 (boys 1.2%, girls 2.0%). At the age of 4, 12.3% of the boys and 16.2% of the girls were already overweight.

Conclusions

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in the Netherlands is still rising, and at an even faster rate than before. Evidence‐based interventions are needed to counter the obesity epidemic, and there is an urgent need for pre‐school intervention programmes.     

Respiratory infections in schoolchildren: co-morbidity and risk factors

Aims

To assess co‐morbidity and risk factors for otitis media, tonsillopharyngitis, and lower respiratory infections in school children.

Methods

Logistic regression analysis of co‐morbidity and risk factors for airway infections in a population based sample of 10 year old children living in Oslo, Norway. Main outcome measures: otitis media, tonsillopharyngitis, and lower respiratory infections in past 12 months.

Results

Airway infections in 10 year old children were common, and significant co‐morbidity was found between the various airway infections. Home dampness was a risk factor for all infections, adjusted odds ratios ranging from 1.2 (95% CI 1.0 to 1.5) to 1.4 (95% CI 1.1 to 1.6) for otitis media and tonsillopharyngitis respectively. Atopic disease was a constitutional risk factor, particularly strong for lower airway infections (adjusted odds ratio 2.4, 95% CI 1.8 to 3.1). African or Asian ethnicities were associated with the airway infections, adjusted odds ratios ranging from 1.2 (95% CI 0.9 to 1.7) to 1.7 (95% CI 1.2 to 2.3).

Conclusions

Respiratory tract infections were common in 10 year old children. There was substantial co‐morbidity between upper and lower airway infections. Environmental and constitutional factors were identified and positively associated with the infections. Results support the hypothesis of 1957 that the whole respiratory tract is one unit.     

No increased risk of relapse after meningococcal C conjugate vaccine in nephrotic syndrome

Objectives

To investigate whether meningococcal C conjugate vaccine (MCCV) caused relapse in children with steroid‐responsive nephrotic syndrome.

Design

A population‐based study was conducted using an active surveillance system, developed to assess adverse events following vaccination, which linked hospital record information on relapses of nephrotic syndrome to community child health population MCCV data. An ecological study looking at hospital admissions for nephrotic syndrome in different age cohorts of children before and after the MCCV introductory campaign was also carried out.

Settings

South East England, and England and Wales.

Patients

52 children having 162 relapses of nephrotic syndrome. Also, all hospital admissions of children aged 2–18 years with steroid‐responsive nephrotic syndrome in England and Wales between 1995 and 2003, relating admissions to when MCCV was introduced in specific age cohorts.

Main outcome measures and analysis method

Self‐controlled case series analysis looking for increased risk of relapse following MCCV and changes in admission rates for nephrotic syndrome (incidence ratio) following the introduction of MCCV to different age cohorts of children.

Results

There was no increased risk of relapse following MCCV in the self‐control case series, where a relative incidence of 0.95 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.61–1.47) was found in the 6‐month post‐vaccination period, or in the ecological study, which gave an incidence rate ratio of 1.05 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.15) for the quarter when MCCV was introduced and the following two quarters.

Conclusions

We found no association between MCCV and nephrotic syndrome, which is therefore not a contraindication to meningococcal vaccination.     

Nasopharyngeal aspiration for diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis

Background

Confirmation of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) in young children is difficult as they seldom expectorate sputum.

Aim

To compare sputa obtained by nasopharyngeal aspiration and by sputum induction for staining and culture of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Patients and methods

Patients from Mulago Hospital, Kampala with symptoms suggestive of PTB were considered for inclusion in the study. Those with a positive tuberculin test and/or a chest radiograph compatible with tuberculosis were recruited. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was confirmed by duplicate enzyme‐labelled immunosorbent assay or in children <15 months by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Direct PCR was undertaken on 82 nasopharyngeal aspirates.

Results

Of 438 patients referred, 94 were recruited over a period of 5 months. Median (range) age was 48 (4–144) months. Of 63 patients tested, 69.8% were infected with HIV. Paired and uncontaminated culture results were available for 88 patients and smear results for 94 patients. Nasopharyngeal aspirates were smear‐positive in 8.5% and culture‐positive in 23.9%. Induced sputa were smear‐positive in 9.6% and culture positive in 21.6%. Overall, 10.6% were smear‐positive, 25.5% were culture‐positive and 26.6% had smear and/or culture confirmed tuberculosis. Direct PCR on nasopharyngeal aspirates had a sensitivity of 62% and specificity of 98% for confirmation of culture‐positive tuberculosis.

Conclusions

Nasopharyngeal aspiration is a useful, safe and low‐technology method for confirmation of PTB and, like sputum induction, can be undertaken in outpatient clinics.     

Assessing the population impact of low rates of breast feeding on asthma, coeliac disease and obesity: the use of a new statistical method

Background

Lack of breast feeding has been reported to be associated with a number of chronic childhood disorders.

Aim

To use a recently described measure, the population impact number of eliminating a risk factor over a time period (PIN‐ER‐t), to quantify the burden of low rates of breast feeding in a UK population of babies born in 2002 with regard to asthma, coeliac disease and obesity.

Methods

We performed literature searches for systematic reviews with meta‐analyses that had investigated the association between breast feeding and asthma, coeliac disease and obesity. Based on these data, and published data on the prevalence of breast feeding and the prevalence of the disorders, we calculated PIN‐ER‐t and estimated the number of cases of each disorder which could be prevented by eliminating “no breast feeding” as a risk factor.

Results

In the population of the 596 122 babies born in England and Wales in 2002, the number of cases of asthma, coeliac disease and obesity that could be prevented over 7–9 years if “no breast feeding” as a risk factor was eliminated were 33 100 (95% CI 17 710 to 47 543), 2655 (95% CI 1937 to 3343) and 13639 (95% CI 7838 to 19308), respectively.

Conclusions

The population burden of low breast feeding rates is high with regard to these chronic disorders. The use of PIN‐ER‐t allows the population burden of low breast feeding rates to be quantified and communicated in a way that will make it easier for both the general public and decision makers to understand.     

Infant feeding in the second 6 months of life related to iron status: an observational study

Objective

To investigate the relationship between iron status in infancy and type of milk and weaning solids consumed.

Design

An observational cohort study.

Setting

928 term infants from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children in 1993–94.

Methods

Haemoglobin and ferritin concentrations at 8 and 12 months were assessed in relation to type and quantity of milk intake at 8 months.

Results

By WHO criteria, 22.7% of the infants were anaemic at 8 months and 18.1% at 12 months. More breast‐ than formula‐fed infants were anaemic at 8 and 12 months. Cows'' milk as the main drink was associated with increased anaemia at 12 months and low ferritin at 8 and 12 months. No association was found between any nutrients and haemoglobin concentrations. Protein and non‐haem iron intakes were positively associated with ferritin concentrations and calcium intake negatively. This effect was more marked in infants being fed cows'' milk. More than 25% of infants in the breast milk and cows'' milk groups and 41% of infants having >6 breast feeds per day had iron intakes below the lower reference nutrient intake. Feeding cows'' milk or formula above 600 ml or >6 breast feeds per day was associated with lower intakes of solids.

Conclusions

Both breast and cows'' milk feeding were associated with higher levels of anaemia. Satisfactory iron intake from solids in later infancy is more likely if formula intake is <600 ml per day and breast feeds are limited to <6 feeds per day. Cows'' milk should be strongly discouraged as a main drink before 12 months.     

Is omitting post urinary‐tract‐infection renal ultrasound safe after normal antenatal ultrasound? An observational study

Background

Guidelines recommend obtaining a renal ultrasonogram (RUS) for young children after a first urinary tract infection (UTI).

Objective

The aim of the current study was to assess the concordance of prenatal and post‐UTI RUS findings in children with a first simple UTI.

Methods

This was a prospective study and included all children aged 5 years or younger who were hospitalised with a first simple UTI (determined as clinical response and normalisation of temperature within 48 h on initiation of antibacterial therapy with no complications). Data were collected from each child regarding the results of prenatal and post‐UTI RUS.

Results

Overall, 250 children were included in the study and the results of late‐pregnancy and post‐UTI RUS were available for 84% (n = 209). Complete concordance between the two RUS was demonstrated in 96% (n = 201). The predictive value of normal antenatal to normal post‐UTI RUS was 96% (95% CI: 93% to 99%). These results include four children with mild transient pelvic dilatation. In eight children in whom renal anomalies were demonstrated only in post‐UTI RUS, the influence of these anomalies on the children''s management was negligible.

Conclusions

Prenatal‐RUS have been performed in most children <5 years old hospitalised with a first simple UTI. Concordance with post‐infection tests is very high. Findings which appear only in post‐infectious RUS usually have negligible effects on children''s management. Thus, in such children with normal antenatal RUS omitting post‐UTI RUS could be considered.     

Polyethylene glycol 3350 plus electrolytes for chronic constipation in children: a double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study

Objectives

To assess the efficacy and safety of polyethylene glycol 3350 plus electrolytes (PEG+E) for the treatment of chronic constipation in children.

Design

Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled crossover trial, with two 2‐week treatment periods separated by a 2‐week placebo washout.

Setting

Six UK paediatric departments.

Participants

51 children (29 girls, 22 boys) aged 24 months to 11 years with chronic constipation (lasting ⩾3 months), defined as ⩽2 complete bowel movements per week and one of the following: pain on defaecation on 25% of days; ⩾25% of bowel movements with straining; ⩾25% of bowel movements with hard/lumpy stools. 47 children completed the double blind treatment.

Main outcome measures

Number of complete defaecations per week (primary efficacy variable), total number of complete and incomplete defaecations per week, pain on defaecation, straining on defaecation, faecal incontinence, stool consistency, global assessment of treatment, adverse events and physical examination.

Results

The mean number of complete defaecations per week was significantly higher for children on PEG+E than on placebo (3.12 (SD 2.05) v 1.45 (SD 1.20), respectively; p<0.001). Further significant differences in favour of PEG+E were observed for total number of defaecations per week (p = 0.003), pain on defaecation (p = 0.041), straining on defaecation (p<0.001), stool consistency (p<0.001) and percentage of hard stools (p = 0.001). Treatment related adverse events (all mild or moderate) occurred in similar numbers of children on PEG+E (41%) and placebo during treatment (45%).

Conclusions

PEG+E is significantly more effective than placebo, and appears to be safe and well tolerated in the treatment of chronic constipation in children.Constipation affects 5–10% of school aged children in the UK¹ and accounts for 3% of general paediatric consultations and 25% of consultations with paediatric gastroenterologists.² Chronic constipation can follow an inadequately managed acute problem.³Measures to induce defaecation in chronically constipated children include regular use of laxatives, increased consumption of fruit and green fibre, ensuring that the child drinks adequate fluids, and encouraging the child to sit on the toilet three or four times a day after meals. Despite common practice, the evidence for the use of laxatives in children is poor; for example, in a recent Cochrane review,⁴ no randomised controlled trials of the use of stimulant laxatives were found in the literature.Movicol (Norgine, Uxbridge, UK) is formulated as a powder containing the osmotic agent polyethylene glycol (PEG) 3350 and electrolytes. When the powder is dissolved in the correct volume of water, the resulting solution is iso‐osmolar with respect to colonic extracellular fluid and therefore does not draw fluid into the colon from the body. This distinct mode of action is in contrast to that of hypertonic inorganic laxatives (eg, magnesium hydroxide or sodium sulphate) and organic laxatives (eg, lactulose), and means that PEG resists the normal drying action of the bowel to remove water from the faecal mass. As a result, the faeces are hydrated and bulked, stimulating peristalsis.The combination of PEG 3350 with electrolytes (PEG+E) has been shown to be effective for treating chronic constipation and faecal impaction in adults⁵ and faecal impaction in children.⁶ The present trial was conducted to assess the efficacy and safety of PEG+E in children with chronic constipation who were being managed in a specialist paediatric outpatient setting.     

Stress in mothers of young children with eczema

Objective

To assess parental stress levels of mothers of children less than 6 years old with eczema and compare these levels with those reported for other chronic childhood illnesses.

Methods

Mothers were recruited from hospital‐based out‐patient clinics (55%) or while their child was an in‐patient (45%) for management of eczema. Maternal stress was measured utilising the Parenting Stress Index‐Long Form (PSI) in 33 mothers. The severity of the eczema at the time of interview was documented by the Eczema Area and Severity Index (EASI) score and the Investigators'' Global Assessment (IGA) score.

Results

The children with eczema had a mean age of 2.8 years. Mothers of children aged 5 years or less with eczema exhibited significantly higher total stress scores (mean PSI 259.6, 95% CI 244.9 to 274.3) as compared to mothers of normal children (PSI 222.8, 95% CI 221.4 to 224.2) and children with other chronic disorders such as insulin‐dependent diabetes (PSI 218.1, 95% CI 204.7 to 231.6) and profound deafness (PSI 221.7, 95% CI 206.4 to 237.0). Stress scores in the parental domain (138.2, 95% CI 128.9 to 147.6) did not differ significantly from the scores of parents of children with severe disabilities such as those requiring home enteral feeding (135.2, 95% CI 129.3 to 141.1) and those with Rett syndrome (132.8, 95% CI 125.0 to 140.6).

Conclusions

Moderate to severe childhood eczema should be regarded as a significant illness in which maternal stress is equivalent to that associated with the care of children with severe developmental and physical problems.     

Impact of HIV-1 status on the radiological presentation and clinical outcome of children with WHO defined community-acquired severe pneumonia

Aims

We compared the radiological features and outcome of WHO defined severe pneumonia among HIV infected and exposed uninfected children randomised to receive penicillin or oral amoxicillin in Durban, South Africa.

Methods

Of 425 children aged between 3 and 59 months with WHO defined severe pneumonia, 366 had anonymous HIV testing performed. Outcome was assessed by failure to improve at 48 h after enrolment or deterioration within 14 days. Chest radiographs were evaluated according to WHO defined radiological criteria for pneumonia and internationally standardised radiological criteria. Findings were stratified for HIV status.

Results

82 (22.4%) children were HIV infected, 40 (10.9%) were HIV exposed and 244 (66.7%) were HIV uninfected. The day 14 outcome in children <12 months of age was significantly worse in HIV‐1 infected than HIV uninfected children (OR 2.8 (95% CI 1.35 to 3.5), p = 0.002), while HIV‐1 infected and uninfected children aged ⩾12 months had equivalent outcomes. Parental penicillin and oral amoxicillin had equivalent response rates in all HIV groups. According to the WHO radiological classification, children who failed WHO standard antimicrobial treatment had significantly higher “other consolidates/infiltrates” than “endpoints for consolidation” in the HIV infected group (OR 5.45 (95% CI 1.58 to 21.38), p<0.002), while the reverse was true for HIV exposed uninfected children (OR 4.13 (95% CI 0.88 to 20.57), p<0.036).

Conclusions

The WHO standard treatment guideline for severe pneumonia is inadequate for HIV‐1 infected infants. The increased prevalence of “other consolidates/infiltrates” among HIV‐1 infected children who failed standard treatment supports the addition of co‐trimoxazole to WHO standard treatment.The global incidence of acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) is 154 million new episodes per annum with 7–13% of patients requiring hospitalisation.¹ ALRI causes 1.9 million deaths among children annually, accounting for over a fifth of all deaths in Africa.² The World Health Organization (WHO) response to this burden of disease has been the introduction of standard case management guidelines. The benefit of this intervention in HIV non‐endemic areas was recently shown in a meta‐analysis where pneumonia related mortality among neonates, infants and children between 0 and 4 years of age was reduced by 27%, 27% and 20%, respectively.³ The HIV‐1 epidemic has altered the prevalence, presentation and outcome of ALRI.The role of chest radiographs in the management of children with ALRI has had mixed reviews. Some studies suggest that radiographs help confirm the diagnosis of pneumonia in only 36% of episodes, help change the diagnosis in approximately 20% of cases and result in a change in treatment plan in 34%.^4,5 The chest radiographic features of HIV associated pneumonia in childhood have scarcely been reported. Sivit et al described the radiological features of Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii) pneumonia in infancy (PCP) and found that a ground glass interstitial appearance with pulmonary air cysts and thoracic air leak syndromes were common.⁶ The WHO has defined radiological criteria to assist in the determination of bacterial pneumonia in their vaccine trials on streptococcal pneumonia.⁷ While several studies have described the aetiology of HIV related pneumonia in children, none have evaluated the differences in radiology and response rates to standard WHO therapy.We therefore performed a prospective nested substudy of a larger international pneumonia study⁸ to define the radiological features on admission and clinical response at day 14 of HIV‐1 infected and exposed children with WHO defined severe pneumonia treated with either oral amoxicillin or injectable penicillin.     

Ethnic and gender differences in body fat in British schoolchildren as measured by DXA

Background

There are known to be ethnic differences in body composition in adults which are related to ethnic differences in adult disease.

Objectives

To evaluate gender and ethnic differences in percentage body fat in British schoolchildren and to compare these differences with classification of obesity using body mass index (BMI) criteria.

Design

A cross‐sectional study of 1251 healthy children and adolescents aged 5–18 years from white, South Asian and African‐Caribbean ethnic groups. Percentage body fat was determined by dual x ray absorptiometry and the subjects classified using BMI criteria for overweight and obesity.

Results

Significant gender differences in percentage body fat were seen, with girls having higher values from the age of 5 years. Girls had 3.8% higher percentage body fat at 5 years of age increasing to 12.9% at 18 years of age. Significant ethnic differences were found, with South Asian girls and boys having the highest percentage body fat from 5 and 7 years of age, respectively. These differences increased with age, being most significant in the teenage years. Although South Asian girls and boys were over‐represented in the group containing children with more than 25% body fat (p<0.0001, χ² test), African‐Caribbean subjects were more likely to be classified as obese using BMI criteria.

Conclusions

There are clear gender and ethnic differences in percentage body fat in British schoolchildren which may relate to known differences in the risk of type 2 diabetes in adolescence and adulthood. BMI criteria for defining overweight and obesity do not accurately identify ethnic differences in body fat.     

Sudden infant death syndrome and sleeping position in pre-term and low birth weight infants: an opportunity for targeted intervention

Aims

To determine the combined effects of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) risk factors in the sleeping environment for infants who were “small at birth” (pre‐term (<37 weeks), low birth weight (<2500 g), or both).

Methods

A three year population based, case‐control study in five former health regions in England (population 17.7 million) with 325 cases and 1300 controls. Parental interviews were carried out after each death and reference sleep of age matched controls.

Results

Of the SIDS infants, 26% were “small at birth” compared to 8% of the controls. The most common sleeping position was supine, for both controls (69%) and those SIDS infants (48%) born at term or ⩾2500 g, but for “small at birth” SIDS infants the commonest sleeping position was side (48%). The combined effect of the risk associated with being “small at birth” and factors in the infant sleeping environment remained multiplicative despite controlling for possible confounding in the multivariate model. This effect was more than multiplicative for those infants placed to sleep on their side or who shared the bed with parents who habitually smoked, while for those “small at birth” SIDS who slept in a room separate from the parents, the large combined effect showed evidence of a significant interaction. No excess risk was identified from bed sharing with non‐smoking parents for infants born at term or birth weight ⩾2500 g.

Conclusion

The combined effects of SIDS risk factors in the sleeping environment and being pre‐term or low birth weight generate high risks for these infants. Their longer postnatal stay allows an opportunity to target parents and staff with risk reduction messages.     

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is associated with a prolonged gestational age

Background

The timing of parturition in most mammals is thought to be linked to a late gestational rise in corticosteroid production by the fetal adrenal gland. We hypothesised that gestational age would be prolonged in our patients with impaired cortisol production secondary to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21‐hydroxylase deficiency.

Methods

We compared the gestational age of patients affected by salt‐wasting CAH due to 21‐hydroxylase deficiency (born 1978–2004; n = 31) with that of children with congenital hypothyroidism (born 1981–2003; n = 30) and a control group of short normal children (born 1980–2002; n = 120). Each group was compared with national (England 2002–3) and regional (2003–4) data on gestational age from hospital episode statistics. Post‐term delivery was defined as birth beyond 41 completed weeks.

Results

National statistics reveal a frequency of 4.4% for singleton deliveries beyond 41 weeks. In our region the frequency was 4.6%. In the group of children with CAH, the frequency of post‐term delivery was 19.3% (p<0.001). In patients with congenital hypothyroidism, the frequency was 13.3% (p = 0.02). The proportion of short children who did not have a recognised endocrinopathy born post term was comparable to national and regional data at 6.7%.

Conclusions

A prolonged gestation is more likely in pregnancies where the fetus has the salt‐wasting form of CAH. This may be due to impaired cortisol production, although other changes in steroidogenesis may also be contributory.     

Systematic review of prevalence studies of autism spectrum disorders

Aim

To quantitatively examine the influence of study methodology and population characteristics on prevalence estimates of autism spectrum disorders.

Methods

Electronic databases and bibliographies were searched and identified papers evaluated against inclusion criteria. Two groups of studies estimated the prevalence of typical autism and all autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The extent of variation among studies and overall prevalence were estimated using meta‐analysis. The influence of methodological factors and population characteristics on estimated prevalence was investigated using meta‐regression and summarised as odds ratios (OR).

Results

Forty studies met inclusion criteria, of which 37 estimated the prevalence of typical autism, and 23 the prevalence of all ASD. A high degree of heterogeneity among studies was observed. The overall random effects estimate of prevalence across studies of typical autism was 7.1 per 10 000 (95% CI 1.6 to 30.6) and of all ASD was 20.0 per 10 000 (95% CI 4.9 to 82.1). Diagnostic criteria used (ICD‐10 or DSM‐IV versus other; OR = 3.36, 95% CI 2.07 to 5.46), age of the children screened (OR = 0.91 per year, 95% CI 0.83 to 0.99), and study location (e.g. Japan versus North America; OR = 3.60, 95% CI 1.73 to 7.46) were all significantly associated with prevalence of typical autism. Diagnostic criteria, age of the sample, and urban or rural location were associated with estimated prevalence of all ASD.

Conclusions

Sixty one per cent of the variation in prevalence estimates of typical autism was explained by these models. Diagnostic criteria used, age of children screened, and study location may be acting as proxies for other study characteristics and require further investigation.     

Comparison of alteplase and heparin in maintaining the patency of paediatric central venous haemodialysis lines: a randomised controlled trial

Objectives

To determine whether the tissue plasminogen activator, alteplase, is more effective than heparin in preventing blood clots developing in children''s haemodialysis central lines between dialysis sessions.

Design

A prospective double‐blind, within‐patient multiperiod cross‐over controlled trial of instilling a “lock” of either heparin 5000 U/ml or alteplase 1 mg/ml into the central lines of two children haemodialysed twice weekly, and seven dialysed thrice weekly, over 10 weeks.

Setting

A UK paediatric nephrology unit.

Main outcome measures

Weight of blood clot aspirated from the line at the start of the next dialysis session.

Results

The odds of a clot forming was 2.4 times greater with heparin than alteplase (95% CI 1.4 to 4.0; p = 0.001), and when present they were 1.9 times heavier (31 vs 15 mg; 95% CI 1.5 to 2.4; p<0.0005). There was no effect of inter‐dialytic interval. One child required an alteplase infusion to clear a blocked line following a heparin lock. We subsequently changed our routine locks from heparin to alteplase. Comparing the year before and after that change, the incidence of blocked lines requiring an alteplase or urokinase infusion fell from 2.7 to 1.2 per child (p<0.03), and the need for surgical replacements from 0.7 to nil (p<0.02).

Conclusion

Alteplase is significantly more effective than heparin in preventing clot formation in central haemodialysis lines. This reduces morbidity and improves preservation of central venous access. It is more expensive, though relatively economic if packaged into syringes and stored frozen until needed, but reduces the costs of unblocking or replacing clotted lines.     

Decline in pneumococcal meningitis after the introduction of the heptavalent-pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in northern France

Background

The impact of the heptavalent‐pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis in Europe has not yet been assessed.

Objective

To determine whether heptavalent‐pneumococcal conjugate vaccine implementation in northern France has resulted in a decrease in the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis in children.

Design

Multicentre retrospective cohort study from 2000 through 2005.

Settings

All paediatric departments of the 18 hospitals in northern France.

Patients

Patients <18 years of age, admitted for laboratory‐confirmed pneumococcal meningitis during the study period, were included.

Interventions

Data were collected from medical files and the microbiological laboratories of each hospital and compared with the regional hospital discharge codes, using a capture–recapture method.

Main outcome measures

The study assessed and compared global and age‐related incidence rates of pneumococcal meningitis in 2001 (pre‐vaccine era) and 2005.

Results

77 cases were found through the capture–recapture method. The incidence rate of pneumococcal meningitis varied from 1.65/100 000 children <18 years in 2001 to 0.80/100 000 children in 2005 (53% reduction, 95% CI 31 to 74; p = 0.08). This has so far been significant only for children <2 years of age (8.9/100 000 in 2001 to 1.8/100 000 in 2005; 82% reduction, 95% CI 52 to 95; p = 0.03).

Conclusion

A decline in pneumococcal meningitis has been observed in infants since heptavalent‐pneumococcal conjugate vaccination began in our area.In the United States, Streptococcus pneumoniae has been considered to be the principal pathogen for bacterial meningitis (47%) since Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccination became widespread during the 1990s and before the implementation of vaccination with the heptavalent‐pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7, Prevenar).¹ In Western Europe, the mean incidence rate of pneumococcal meningitis has averaged 8.7 cases/100 000 in children <2 years old with incidence rates varying from 3.8 to 14.6/100 000 between countries.² Between 2001 and 2004, the French Bacterial Meningitis Surveillance Network reported that S pneumoniae caused 42% of all cases of bacterial meningitis in children, 70% of these occurring in children <2 years old.³ The case‐fatality rate for this disease is estimated at 8–12% in children and has not dramatically changed for 20 years despite progress in diagnosis and treatment.^1,4 Sequelae occur in 20–35% of cases and include deafness, motor deficits, learning disorders linked with concentration disorders, and memory problems.^5,6PCV7, first approved in the US in 1999, targets the seven serotypes involved most frequently in the invasive pneumococcal diseases of young children.^7,8 Serotypes 6B, 9V, 14, 18C and 23F, all present in this vaccine, account for most cases of pneumococcal meningitis today.⁹ PCV7 received marketing authorisation in Europe in February 2001, was available in France in April 2001 and was recommended in March 2002 for children with a disease at high risk of invasive pneumococcal infections (immunosuppression, sickle cell disease, etc),¹⁰ and children aged 2–24 months with risk factors for pneumococcal infection (ie, children cared for more than 4 h/week with more than two other children, children with breast‐feeding duration <2 months, children with at least two siblings), criteria which covered between 79 and 89% of children <2 years of age.¹¹ The vaccination schedule uses a four‐dose regimen, at 2, 3 and 4 months of age and a booster dose during the second year of life. The impact of the PCV7 on the incidence of meningitis and other invasive pneumococcal diseases has been clearly demonstrated in North America and Australia,^{12,13,14,15,16} whose vaccination schedules are different from those in France.The aim of this study was to determine whether PCV7 implementation in a large area of northern France affected the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis in children.     

WATCH IT: a community based programme for obese children and adolescents

Background

The WATCH IT programme was developed to address the needs of obese children from disadvantaged communities in Leeds and has been running since January 2004. Results of the pilot phase, prior to a randomised controlled trial, are presented.

Methods

A process evaluation to assess success of implementation was conducted in December 2004. User views (parent and child) were obtained by semi‐structured interviews and focus groups. Change in BMI SD score was calculated for children attending between January 2004 and November 2005.

Results

A total of 94 children (49 girls, 45 boys), mean age (SD) 12.2 (2.0) years attended. They were moderately to severely obese (mean BMI SDS 3.09 (0.45), with low quality of life and self‐image scores. There was a significant reduction in overweight at 6 months (ΔBMI SD −0.07), especially for teenagers (ΔBMI SD −0.13) and girls (ΔBMI SD −0.07). The programme was successfully implemented. By December 2004 mean attendance was 2.1 (0.7) clinics per month, and sports sessions 3.3 (1.7) sessions per month. Fourteen children dropped out and non‐attendance was low (only 7.5% sessions missed in 12 months). Qualitative research indicated significant appreciation of the service, with reported increase in self‐confidence and friendships, and reduction in self‐harm.

Conclusion

WATCH IT offers a model for a community based service for obese children. The programme suggests that effective care can be delivered by health trainers supervised by health professionals, and so potentially provides a cost effective programme within children''s communities. These findings are encouraging, and need to be substantiated by extension to other locations and evaluation by randomised controlled trial.     

Prednisolone versus dexamethasone in croup: a randomised equivalence trial

Background

Croup remains a common respiratory problem presenting to emergency departments. A single oral treatment of oral dexamethasone results in improved outcome. Prednisolone has similar pharmacokinetic properties and has a significant advantage in that it is commercially available in liquid preparations.

Objective

To ascertain whether a single oral dose of prednisolone was equivalent to a single oral dose of dexamethasone (matched for potency) in children with mild to moderate croup.

Design

A double blind, randomised, controlled equivalence trial

Setting

Tertiary paediatric emergency department.

Patients

133 children aged 3 to 142 months presenting with mild to moderate croup.

Interventions

Children received either a single oral dose of dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg or single oral dose of prednisolone 1 mg/kg.

Outcome

The main outcome measure was unscheduled re‐presentation to medical care as determined by telephone follow up at 7 to 10 days. Croup score, adrenaline (epinephrine) use, time spent in the emergency department, and duration of croup and viral symptoms were secondary outcome measures.

Results

Children treated with prednisolone were more likely to re‐present: 19 of 65 children (29%) reattended medical care compared with 5 of 68 (7%) from the dexamethasone group. The confidence intervals around this 22% difference in outcome were 8% to 35%, outside the 0% to 7.5% range of equivalence. There were no significant differences in other outcome measures.

Conclusion

A single oral dose of prednisolone is less effective than a single oral dose of dexamethasone in reducing unscheduled re‐presentation to medical care in children with mild to moderate croup.     

Does splenectomy in cystic fibrosis related liver disease improve lung function and nutritional status? A case series

Aims

To review the effect of total splenectomy on lung function and nutrition in children with cystic fibrosis related liver disease (CFLD) and associated portal hypertension. The stated indications for surgery and the short and long term risks of the procedure were also documented.

Method

Over a 25 year period from January 1980 to June 2005, approximately 650 patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) were treated at the Royal Children''s Hospital, Melbourne, Australia. Nine patients with CFLD who underwent a splenectomy during that time were identified and their medical records were reviewed.

Results

FEV₁% predicted dropped by −16±11% in the two years pre‐splenectomy. This contrasts with the increase in FEV₁% predicted of 2±16% in the two years post‐splenectomy (p = 0.05). The cumulative gain in WAZ score (ΔWAZ pre) over the two years prior to splenectomy of 0.045±0.69 was not significantly different from the cumulative gain in WAZ score (ΔWAZ post) for the two years after splenectomy of 0.15±0.36 (p = 0.65). The average age at splenectomy was 14.8 years (SD = 3 years). The average weight of an excised spleen was 983 g (SD = 414 g). There were no deaths associated with splenectomy. The median length of follow up post‐splenectomy was 6.0 years (range 0.7–15.8). There were no episodes of bacterial peritonitis or overwhelming sepsis.

Conclusions

Splenectomy may have a beneficial effect on lung function although this may not manifest itself until the second year post‐splenectomy. Splenectomy in patients with CFLD appears to be a safe procedure.