Supraciliary keyhole craniotomy for anterior frontal lesions in children

Treatment for anterior frontal space occupying lesions such as epidural hematoma, vascular malformations or brain tumors, have typically involved invasive craniotomies. This method often requires large incisions with wide exposure and may be associated with high morbidity rates. The basis for the “keyhole” method is that a minimally invasive craniotomy is often sufficient for exposing large areas deep in tissue, and may limit exposure and decrease surgically related morbidity while enabling adequate removal and decompression. The supraciliary method includes a cut above the eyebrow and a small craniotomy to uncover the base of the frontal lobe and the orbital roof. We demonstrate our experience with this method. We identified children who were operated via the supraciliary approach between January 2009 and December 2013, and gathered their pre- and post-operative clinical and radiological statistics. Fourteen patients were identified. Pathologies included tumors, abscesses and epidural hematomas. Nine were operated due to epidural hematoma, two due to tumors, two due to brain abscesses, and one for anterior encephalocele. No significant peri-operative or post-operative complications were observed. Long-term follow-up shows that the surgical scars were nearly invisible. The supraciliary approach is a safe, effective and elegant technique for treating lesions in the anterior skull base. The method should be weighed alongside traditional methods on a case-by-case basis.     

Skull fractures in children: their assessment in relation to developmental skull changes and acute intracranial hematomas

Retrospective analysis of 12,072 pediatric head injury cases revealed 1,297 skull fractures. Patients with skull fractures were divided into four age groups according to the fusion of skull sutures and other developmental radiological skull changes. Results revealed that the patients with open skull sutures (aged <2 years) and with linear skull fractures alone had a negligible chance of developing intracranial hematomas. With the fusion of metopic and mendosal sutures associated with other skull changes (>2 years), the children became progressively more susceptible to developing intracranial hematomas if they had a skull fracture. The risk of developing intracranial hematomas was the highest among those patients (11–15 years) whose paranasal sinuses had reached adult size and spheno-occipital synchondrosis had begun to fuse.     

Hemodynamic response to skull pins application in children: effect of lignocaine infiltration of scalp

BACKGROUND: Skull pins application following local anesthetic infiltration of scalp obtunds hemodynamic changes in adults. No such study is available in children. METHODS: 30 children undergoing elective suboccipital craniectomy with skull pins fixation, were randomly allocated either to control group I, or lignocaine group II. Whereas in group I, pins were applied without any scalp infiltration. In group II, pins were applied 1 min. after scalp infiltration with 0.5% lignocaine (plain) at each pin site. RESULTS: Mean arterial pressure and heart rate were recorded during pinning (peak increase),1,4,7 and 10 min later, and were compared with the baseline (parameters recorded approximately 20 min. after intubation). Mean arterial pressure in group I peaked from 77.0 +/- 9.19 to 113.87 +/- 13.7mmHg (P<0.001) and remained significantly high throughout the study period. In Group II peak increase in mean arterial pressure was from 91.64 +/- 16.39 to 101.85 +/- 15.87 mmHg (P<0.01) and remained high till 1 min. only. Pins placement resulted in significant increase in heart rate only during pinning (peak increase) and up to 1 min. in both the groups (P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In children, skull pins placement 1 min. after scalp infiltration with 0.5% lignocaine plain fails to prevent the hemodynamic changes arising during pins placement (peak change) and up to 1 min. after pins placement. However, the technique successfully blocks these changes beyond 1 min. post skull pins fixation.     

Epidural hematoma following use of a three-point skull clamp.

We report an unusual case of epidural hematoma secondary to the use of a three-point skull-fixation device. Initially, a posterior-fossa brain tumor with hydrocephalus was diagnosed in a 15-year-old boy. Midline suboccipital craniectomy was performed with the patient placed in the prone position. A Mayfield (Ohio Medical Instrument Co., Cincinnati, OH, USA) skull clamp was used for fixation of the head during the surgical procedure, following which, a huge epidural hematoma developed within 6 hours of surgery, due to skull penetration and fracture at one of the clamp's pin sites located proximate to the coronal suture.     

Spontaneous resolution of an acute epidural hematoma with normal intracranial pressure: case report and literature review

Traumatic epidural hematomas are critical emergencies in neurosurgery, and patients symptomatic from acute epidural hematomas are typically treated with rapid surgical decompression. However, some patients, if asymptomatic, may be treated with close clinical observation and serial imaging. Although rare, rapid spontaneous resolution of epidural hematomas in the pediatric population has even been reported, with only seven cases in the literature. Numerous theories have been proposed to explain the pathophysiology behind these cases, including egress of epidural collections through cranial discontinuities (fractures/open sutures), blood that originates in the subgaleal space, and bleeding from the cranial diploic cavity after a skull fracture that preferentially expands into the subgaleal space. We report the case of a rapidly resolving epidural hematoma in a 13-year-old boy. This case allows for more detailed inferences to be made concerning the nature of the epidural hematoma’s resolution, as it is the first reported case in which an intracranial pressure monitor has been utilized. We also review the literature and discuss the nature of rapid spontaneous epidural hematoma resolution.     

Unusual penetrating cranio-cerebral injuries in children from mains plugs

Introduction Domestic accidents resulting in head injury are not uncommon. They mostly involve falls from high beds, tables or window seals. Rarely, children suffer penetrating skull injuries, often from unlikely objects. Materials We present two children, 2.5- and 1.5-year-old boys, respectively, who suffered penetrating wounds and compound depressed skull fractures when they fell from moderate height and landed on nearby electric mains plugs, which were driven into their heads. None of them lost consciousness or developed epilepsy. The first patient was brought with one plug pin firmly driven into the skull in the right frontal region. Parents had disassembled and removed the rest of the plug. The second patient was brought in with the whole plug attached and one pin embedded in the left parietal region. On plain radiographs and computed tomography (CT) scan, there was complete skull perforation, a compound depressed skull fracture, and the plug pin was embedded in the brain parenchyma in both patients. In the second patient, the injury site was near the motor cortex. In both cases, the plug was surgically removed, and the skull fracture was repaired. Discussion This type of injury from the protruding ends of mains plugs is uncommon and has to be borne in mind by parents, carers and any person dealing with childhood trauma because the plug could be removed at home and the child brought to the Emergency Department with only a small wound in the scalp, hiding a potentially serious underlying brain injury.     

Infrequent Hemorrhagic Complications Following Surgical Drainage of Chronic Subdural Hematomas

Chronic subdural hematomas mainly occur amongst elderly people and usually develop after minor head injuries. In younger patients, subdural collections may be related to hypertension, coagulopathies, vascular abnormalities, and substance abuse. Different techniques can be used for the surgical treatment of symptomatic chronic subdural hematomas : single or double burr-hole evacuation, with or without subdural drainage, twist-drill craniostomies and classical craniotomies. Failure of the brain to re-expand, pneumocephalus, incomplete evacuation, and recurrence of the fluid collection are common complications following these procedures. Acute subdural hematomas may also occur. Rarely reported hemorrhagic complications include subarachnoid, intracerebral, intraventricular, and remote cerebellar hemorrhages. The causes of such uncommon complications are difficult to explain and remain poorly understood. Overdrainage and intracranial hypotension, rapid brain decompression and shift of the intracranial contents, cerebrospinal fluid loss, vascular dysregulation and impairment of venous outflow are the main mechanisms discussed in the literature. In this article we report three cases of different post-operative intracranial bleeding and review the related literature.     

Spontaneous epidural hematoma due to skull metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma

Although “spontaneous” epidural hematomas are rare, they can occur in patients with metastatic skull tumors. We describe a case caused by skull metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and review the relevant literature. In patients with HCC, potential skull metastasis should be kept in mind, since skull metastases from HCC seem to often cause devastating epidural hematoma.     

颅脑损伤术后迟发性颅内血肿的形成机制

目的 探讨颅脑损伤术后非手术区迟发性颅内血肿的临床特征及形成机制。方法 回顾性分析29例颅脑损伤术后经CT扫描或再次开颅探查证实为飞黄腾达这发性血肿的发生部位，发生时间，及其与脑挫裂伤，颅骨骨折等原发伤的关系。结果 血肿发生部位与手术部位关系；邻近型8例，远隔型12例，对侧型9例；发生在脑内9例，硬膜外12例，硬膜下7例。脑室内1例；12例术后硬膜外血肿中有9例可见颅骨骨折；9例术后脑内血肿中有7例可见脑挫裂伤。结论 颅脑损伤术后迟发性颅内血肿中，硬膜外，硬膜下与脑内血肿形成机制不尽相同，颅骨骨折，脑挫裂伤，脑膜或皮质血管破裂，桥静脉断裂等局部损伤影响不同类型血肿的形成，脑血管麻痹，低氧血症等是非手术区迟发性血肿形成的病理基础。     

Traumatic intracranial hemorrhage in newborns

Introduction Neonatal traumatic head injuries (NTHI) can be life-threatening and require aggressive treatment. The indications, techniques, and results of brain decompression are not well defined in the literature.Methods We studied prospectively cases of NTHI with intracranial traumatic lesions; skull fractures without underlying lesions were not included. We treated 17 cases of NTHI: 7 patients had a subdural hematoma, 3 had an extradural hematoma, and the others had subarachnoid hemorrhage. Surgical evacuation of intracranial clots was performed in 7 cases, by needle aspiration in 5 and by craniotomy in 2 patients with extradural hematomas.Results The outcome was favorable in all but one patient, who had hemophilia A, and died of rebleeding at the age of 2 months.Conclusion Surgical decompression of intracranial hematomas due to NTHI is often unnecessary; however, it may be required in emergency because of poor clinical tolerance. Whenever possible, percutaneous needle aspiration is the treatment of choice.     

“S”形切口+跨窦骨瓣开颅术治疗跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿的疗效

目的 探讨“S”形切口+跨窦骨瓣开颅术治疗跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿的疗效。方法 回顾性分析2017年12月至 2019年12月收治的19例跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿的临床资料。术前行颅脑冠状位、矢状位CT及颅骨三维重建,根据影像学所示行“S”形皮瓣+跨窦骨瓣开颅术。结果 术中见顶骨凹陷性骨折7例,颞顶骨骨折15例,其中骨折线跨上矢状窦12例;上矢状窦出血12例,骨折板障出血3,导静脉及硬膜血管出血4例;术后24~72 h多次复查头部CT,显示硬膜外血肿完全清除,无再出血。出院时按GOS评分评估预后:恢复良好14例,中残3例,重残1例,植物生存1例。术后随访3~24个月无血肿复发。结论 采用“S”形切口+跨窦骨瓣开颅术治疗跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿,能有效地止血并处理上矢状窦损伤,同时避免上矢状窦受压,术后再出血风险低,并发症少,疗效好。     

Enhanced recovery after surgery for oncological craniotomies

Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) initiatives in the fields of gastrointestinal and pelvic surgery have contributed to improved postoperative functional status for patients and decreased length of stay. A similar comprehensive protocol is lacking for patients undergoing craniotomy for tumor resection. A literature search was performed using PubMed. These references were reviewed with a preference for recent high quality studies. Cohort and retrospective studies were also included if higher levels of evidence were lacking. A literature search was conducted for scalp blocks and minimally invasive craniotomies. Papers were scored using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria for evidence level and recommendation grade. Seventeen ERAS items were reviewed and recommendations made. The current body of evidence is insufficient to create a standardized protocol for craniotomy and tumor resection. However, this initial review of the literature supports pursuing future research initiatives that explore modalities to improve functional recovery and decrease length of stay in craniotomy patients.     

How should we manage children after mild head injury?

There are many controversies concerning the management of children after mild head injury. Most of these patients achieve a full recovery without medical or surgical intervention. A small percentage of them deteriorate owing to intracranial complications. The goal of this study was to identify significant factors that might allow the identification of patients at risk of subsequent deterioration. Its secondary goal was to establish a clinical protocol for the management of mild head injuries in children. We retrospectively reviewed the records of 166 children and adolescents with head trauma who had Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) or Children Coma Scale (CCS) scores of 13–15 at the time of admission. The patients were divided into five age categories: babies younger than 1 year, children 1–3, 4–6, and 7–14 years old, and adolescents 15–17 years of age. The largest age group consisted of children 7–14 years old (83 cases). There was a male predominance (2:1). The main causes of injury were traffic accidents (55 cases) and falls (53 patients). Neurosurgical procedures were required in 93 of the 166 patients (56%). The most common intracranial lesion was subdural and epidural hematoma (60 cases). In 26 children (15.6%) diffuse brain swelling was the only lesion. A skull fracture was found in 103 cases and was accompanied by epidural hematoma (HED) in 19 cases (18%) and by subdural hematoma (HSD) in 12 cases (12%). However, the 63 children without a fracture also included 18 (29%) who had HSD and 11 (17%) who had HED. In our population 165 (99%) of the patients obtained a very good or good result. None was left severely disabled or in a vegetative state. One patient with GCS 13 died of an infection. We concluded that skull X-ray examination is not sufficient to rule out intracranial hematoma. We recommend CT scanning and admission to hospital for 24-h observation for all children with minor head injury, because of the risk of delayed hematoma. Received: 8 September 1999     

儿童颞部蛛网膜囊肿不同术式的疗效分析

目的探讨儿童颅内颞叶蛛网膜囊肿的手术方法和疗效。方法颞部蛛网膜囊肿患儿65例,27例行囊肿-腹腔分流术,17例行显微镜下囊壁剥离＋脑池穿通术,21例行内镜下囊壁剥离＋脑池穿通术,并比较三种不同术式的治疗效果。结果囊肿-腹腔分流术、显微镜和内镜术后囊肿缩小率分别为88.9%、94.1%和95.2%,三者相比,无显著性差异（P〉0.05）。术后转流障碍是囊肿-腹腔分流术的主要并发症,且经受该手术患者并发感染后治疗效果差、囊肿消失后拔管率低;术后硬膜下积液和慢性硬膜下血肿则是显微镜和内镜手术的主要并发症。结论根据囊肿形态、大小、脑脊液吸收功能等进行评估,以微创为主导个体化选择手术治疗儿童颞部囊肿,可取得较满意效果。     

Design of a head fixation device for experiments in behaving monkeys

We have designed a new device for head fixation of behaving monkeys. The fixation device consists of a duralumin head ring mounted with four screw holders. It is firmly fixed to the animal's skull with four stainless steel screw pins. The head ring is then attached to a primate chair in any desirable position and angle using a set of adjustable plates. The device has been used for behavioral training that requires accurate gaze monitoring and for recording single-unit activity over a several-month period. The advantage of our device is that it is simple to use; it can be attached readily without major surgical procedures and it can be quickly removed when experiments are not running. This head fixation system is suitable for behavioral experiments and single-unit recording studies. It may also be applicable for studies on functional imaging of the macaque brain, by constructing it of non-magnetic materials.     

Clinical significance of skull base fracture in patients after traumatic brain injury

About 4% of all head injuries include skull base fractures. Most of these fractures (90%) are secondary to closed head trauma; the remainder are due to penetrating trauma. We reviewed the records from January 2006 through December 2008 of all patients older than 18 years of age who arrived at Soroka Medical Center in Be’er-Sheva, Israel, with skull base fractures following a traumatic brain injury (TBI). We identified 107 patients with a mean age of 42 years at the time of TBI. Glasgow Coma score on arrival predicted the clinical outcome. We observed temporal fractures in 30% of these patients, occipital fractures in 20%, pyramidal fractures in 19%, anterior skull base fractures in 17%, and multiple fractures in 14%. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak was observed in 16 patients (15%). Of the patients experiencing CSF leaks, otorrhea occurred in 10 (62%) and rhinorrhea occurred in six (37%). Three patients required surgical intervention to repair the leak. Meningitis occurred in four patients with clinically evident CSF leak. Multiple skull base fractures are associated with poor neurological outcome. The low rate of meningitis in this patient sample implies that there is no indication to administer prophylactic antibiotics to patients with skull base fractures.     

Stroke and Death Due to Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension

Background

Spontaneous intracranial hypotension has become a well-recognized cause of headaches and a wide variety of other manifestations have been reported. Recently, several patients with asymptomatic spontaneous intracranial hypotension were reported. I now report two patients with spontaneous intracranial hypotension who developed multiple arterial strokes associated with death in one patient, illustrating the spectrum of disease severity in spontaneous intracranial hypotension.

Methods

Medical records and radiologic imaging of the two patients were reviewed.

Results

Case 1. A 45-year-old man presented with an orthostatic headache. Neurologic examination was normal. MRI showed bilateral subdural fluid collections, brain sagging, and pachymeningeal enhancement. At lumbar puncture, the opening pressure was too low to record. He underwent two epidural blood patches with transient improvement of symptoms. His headaches progressed and a CT-myelogram showed a lower cervical CSF leak. Subsequently, periodic lethargy and confusion was noted and he then rapidly deteriorated. Examination showed coma (GCS: 4 [E1, M2, V1]), a fixed and dilated right pupil, and decerebrate posturing. Bilateral craniotomies were performed for the evacuation of chronic subdural hematomas. Immediate postoperative CT showed bilateral posterior cerebral artery infarcts and a recurrent right subdural hematoma, requiring re-evacuation. Postoperative examination was consistent with brain death and support was withdrawn.  Case 2. A 42-year-old man presented with a non-positional headache. Neurologic examination was normal. CT showed bilateral acute on chronic subdural hematomas and effacement of the basilar cisterns. MRI showed brain sagging, bilateral subdural hematomas, and pachymeningeal enhancement. Bilateral craniotomies were performed and subdural hematomas were evacuated. Postoperatively, the patient became progressively lethargic (GCS: 8 [E2, M4, V2]) and variable degrees of pupillary asymmetry and quadriparesis were noted. MRI now also showed multiple areas of restricted diffusion in the pons and midbrain, consistent with multiple infarcts. CT showed worsening subdural fluid collections with midline shift and increased effacement of the basilar cisterns. Repeat bilateral craniotomies were performed for evacuation of the subdural fluid collections. Neurologic examination was then noted to be fluctuating but clearly improved when lying flat (GCS: 10T [E4, M6, VT]). CT-myelography demonstrated an extensive cervico-thoracic CSF leak. An epidural blood patch was performed. The patient made a good, but incomplete, recovery with residual quadriparesis and dysphagia.

Conclusions

Arterial cerebral infarcts are rare, but potentially life-threatening complications of spontaneous intracranial hypotension. The strokes are due to downward displacement of the brain and can be precipitated by craniotomy for evacuation of associated subdural hematomas.     

Lidocaine infiltration of the scalp does not completely abolish increased intraocular pressure due to skull pin insertion.

Insertion of skull pins results in haemodynamic perturbations, which can be blunted by local anaesthetic infiltration of the pin sites. No study has assessed the effects on intraocular pressure. General anaesthesia was induced in 71 patients undergoing cervical spine surgery with attachment of Gardner Wells tongs to the skull. Skull pins were attached five minutes after induction following either saline (group I, 35 patients) or lidocaine (group II, 36 patients) infiltration of scalp. Intraocular pressure, mean arterial pressure and heart rate were recorded before (baseline), immediately after, and 60 s following pin insertion and analysed statistically. Insertion of pins increased intraocular pressure in both groups (from 8.4+/-2.7 to 14.2+/-3.0 mmHg in group I, and from 8.8+/-2.3 to 12.7+/-2.7 mmHg in group II, P < 0.001), which persisted even at 60 s but the increase was significantly greater in group I. Insertion of pins significantly increased blood pressure in group I only. We conclude that lidocaine infiltration at the skull pin sites for Gardner Wells tong attachment fails to completely abolish increased intraocular pressure.     

Head injury

Obliteration of mesencephalic cisterns, midline shift, subdural and epidural hematomas, shearing injuries involving the brainstem and/or interpeduncular cistern, fractures of the sphenoid body and/or clivus, as well as perfusion defects larger than the intracerebral hematoma have been identified in the recent literature as findings indicative of poor outcome in patients with head injury.     

Pediatric depressed skull fractures: analysis of 530 cases

Depressed skull fractures (DSFs) account for 7–10% of children admitted to hospital with a head injury and 15–25% of children with skull fractures. We reviewed the records of 530 patients operated on for DSF from January 1, 1973, to December 31, 1993. This group was made up of 357 boys (67%) and 173 girls (33%) whose ages ranged from 1 day to 16 years (mean age 6.1 years). Fall was the most common cause of injury. Of the 530 patients with DSF, 66% had compound fractures. the incidence of compound fractures increased with age. Compound fractures caused more brain lacerations (29%) than simple fractures (15.5%) did. We also classified DSFs radiologically as true, flat, or ping-pong ball fractures. Associated intracranial lesions were found to be a bad prognostic factor. There were 13 deaths (2.5%) in this series. Satis-factory results were achieved in over 95% of the patients. Compound fractures are associated with a worse outcome and a higher incidence of intracranial lesions and cortical laceration. Unilateral pupillary dilatation and an admission GCS score of 8 or less are ominous signs in regard to mortality. We also found that the deeper the depressed bone, the higher the risk of both dural tear and cortical laceration and the worse the prognosis. A conservative approach should be followed in cases of simple DSF without associated intracranial hematoma and in cases in which the bone depression is not deeper than 1 cm.Presented at the XXII Annual Meeting of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery. Birmingham 1994