Chronic heart failure in older adults

Assessment and management of heart failure (HF) in older adults may be simplified and structured by the mnemonic DEFEAT-HF: Diagnosis, Etiology, Fluid volume, Ejection fraction, And Treatment of Heart Failure. A clinical diagnosis and etiology of HF can often be established during history and physical examination. Fluid volume status must be assessed by estimating jugular venous pressure in centimeters of water by identifying the top of the jugular venous pulsation in the neck and estimating its vertical height from the right atrium. Left ventricular ejection fraction must be obtained to classify patients into systolic and diastolic HF and to guide evidence-based therapy.     

Diagnosis and evaluation of heart failure

Heart failure is a common clinical syndrome characterized by dyspnea, fatigue, and signs of volume overload, which may include peripheral edema and pulmonary rales. Heart failure has high morbidity and mortality rates, especially in older persons. Many conditions, such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease, and diabetes mellitus, can cause or lead to decompensation of chronic heart failure. Up to 40 to 50 percent of patients with heart failure have diastolic heart failure with preserved left ventricular function, and the overall mortality is similar to that of systolic heart failure. The initial evaluation includes a history and physical examination, chest radiography, electrocardiography, and laboratory assessment to identify causes or precipitating factors. A displaced cardiac apex, a third heart sound, and chest radiography findings of venous congestion or interstitial edema are useful in identifying heart failure. Systolic heart failure is unlikely when the Framingham criteria are not met or when B-type natriuretic peptide level is normal. Echocardiography is the diagnostic standard to confirm systolic or diastolic heart failure through assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction. Evaluation for ischemic heart disease is warranted in patients with heart failure, especially if angina is present, given that coronary artery disease is the most common cause of heart failure. (Am Fam Physician. 2012;85(12):1161-1168. Copyright ? 2012 American Academy of Family Physicians.).     

Diagnosis of heart failure using urinary natriuretic peptides

In the present study, we assessed the use of urinary natriuretic peptides [N-terminal proatrial natriuretic peptide (N-ANP) and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (N-BNP) and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP)] in the diagnosis of heart failure. Thirty-four consecutive hospitalized heart failure patients (median age, 75.5 years; 14 female) were compared with 82 age- and gender-matched echocardiographically normal controls. All subjects provided plasma and urine specimens. Plasma was assayed for N-BNP, and urine was assayed for N-ANP, N-BNP and CNP. The diagnostic efficiency of peptides was assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. All three urinary natriuretic peptides were significantly elevated in heart failure patients ( P <0.001). Urine N-BNP was correlated with plasma N-BNP ( r (s)=0.53, P <0.0005). Areas under the ROC curves for urinary N-ANP, N-BNP and CNP were 0.86, 0.93 and 0.70 and for plasma N-BNP was 0.96. Correcting urinary peptide levels using urine creatinine produced ROC areas of 0.89, 0.93 and 0.76 respectively. A urine N-BNP level cut-off point of 11.6 fmol/ml had a sensitivity and specificity for heart failure detection of 97% and 78% respectively, with positive and negative predictive values of 64.7 and 98%. In conclusion, although all three natriuretic peptides were elevated in urine in heart failure, urinary N-BNP had diagnostic accuracy comparable with plasma N-BNP. Use of urinary N-BNP for heart failure diagnosis may be suitable for high-throughput screening, especially in subjects reluctant to provide blood samples.     

成人先天性心脏病的神经内分泌激活与慢性心力衰竭

目的检测成人先天性心脏病(先心病)的神经内分泌因子,探讨成人先心病是否存在神经内分泌激活及其临床意义。方法选取100例成人先心病患者,检测其心房利钠肽(ANP)、脑利钠肽(BNP)、内皮素-1(ET-1)、血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)、醛固酮(ALD)和去甲肾上腺素(NE)水平,另选取年龄及性别与之相匹配的正常体检成人30例作为对照组。结果成人先心病血循环中的ANP(55.6±7.5)pmol/L、BNP(35.7±7.4)pmol/L、ET-1(2.42±0.31)pmol/L与对照组[ANP(3.1±0.6)pmol/L、BNP(5.7±0.9)pmol/L、ET-1(0.72±0.08)pmol/L]比较明显增高(均P<0.0001),NE(2.17±0.08)nmol/L、AngⅡ(188.3±11.5)ng/L、ALD(546.1±42.3)pmol/L与对照组[NE(1.63±0.13)nmol/L、AngⅡ(61.2±1.6)ng/L、ALD(336.4±22.8)pmol/L]比较明显增高(均P<0.001)。3个亚组随着疾病严重程度的加重,神经内分泌的激活就越明显。结论成人先心病的神经内分泌明显激活并具有慢性心力衰竭的特征,并与疾病的严重性密切相关。     

Existential well-being predicts perceived control in adults with heart failure

This study examined the relationship between spiritual well-being (SWB) and perceived control (PC) in adult patients with heart failure (HF). The sample included 75 adults ranging in age from 27 to 82 years. Participants verbally completed study questionnaires in a clinic room selected for privacy. Multiple linear regression results indicated that increased existential spiritual well-being (a subscale of SWB) predicted increased PC. Thus, patients with HF who adjust to personal changes and who also connect with others may develop meaning and purpose in life and may perceive increased control over their heart disease.     

Diagnosis and management of patients with heart failure in England

The objective of this postal survey was to assess the services currently accessed by primary care trusts (PCTs) for patients with chronic heart failure. Of the 303 PCTs in England, 225 (74%) responded to the questionnaire. Natriuretic peptides were used by 61 (26%) PCTs, whereas direct access to echocardiography was available to 163 (72%) and heart failure clinics to 95 (42%). Heart failure services were led by a cardiologist in 138 (61%) main referring hospitals, an elderly care physician in 33 (15%), and other physicians in 50 (22%). In total, 138 (62%) PCTs had access to heart failure nurses and 40 (18%) used coronary heart disease nurses; in 13 (5%) PCTs, patients with heart failure were seen by practice nurses. This survey highlights the need for further research on the cost effectiveness of service models for diagnosing and managing heart failure. The evidence base behind heart failure nurses should support their wider availability. The question of who cares for patients with heart failure should be reflected more widely in specialist training programmes in both secondary and primary care.     

Diagnosis and management of heart failure in the outpatient setting

Heart failure is a clinical syndrome that results in diminished tissue perfusion and volume overload. Because of increasing population age and improved survival after myocardial infarction, the prevalence of heart failure is likely to increase dramatically. Primary care physicians are in an ideal position to care for patients throughout the spectrum of heart failure, from identifying patients at increased risk to managing the final stages of the disease. New understandings of heart failure pathophysiology have led to more effective treatments aimed at blocking neurohormonal pathways. There is still much to be learned about the pathophysiology and treatment of diastolic heart failure, and rapidly expanding knowledge of heart failure is likely to lead to better treatment in the coming years.     

Diagnosis and management of diastolic dysfunction and heart failure

Diastolic heart failure occurs when signs and symptoms of heart failure are present but left ventricular systolic function is preserved (i.e., ejection fraction greater than 45 percent). The incidence of diastolic heart failure increases with age; therefore, 50 percent of older patients with heart failure may have isolated diastolic dysfunction. With early diagnosis and proper management the prognosis of diastolic dysfunction is more favorable than that of systolic dysfunction. Distinguishing diastolic from systolic heart failure is essential because the optimal therapy for one may aggravate the other. Although diastolic heart failure is clinically and radiographically indistinguishable from systolic heart failure, normal ejection fraction and abnormal diastolic function in the presence of symptoms and signs of heart failure confirm diastolic heart failure. The pharmacologic therapies of choice for diastolic heart failure are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, diuretics, and beta blockers.     

Challenges and strategies for heart failure symptom management in older adults

Heart failure (HF), predominant in adults older than 65, is a chronic and progressive syndrome frequently associated with the burden of distressing symptoms. HF symptom management is directed at treating the underlying causes of acute decompensation, which commonly relate to lack of medication adherence or dietary restriction. Therefore, for older adults capable of managing their health care needs, promotion of self-care is essential for symptom management. Using the Model of Heart Failure Self-Care as a guide, the purpose of this article is to discuss the relationship between self-care and HF symptom management and to provide nursing strategies for assessment and promotion of self-care in older adults with HF.     

Diagnosis and management of heart failure in the long-term care setting

Heart failure is increasing in incidence and prevalence and is predominantly a condition of the elderly, which confers significant morbidity and mortality risks and places an enormous economic burden on the health care system and society. A reduction in hospitalizations and improvement of quality of life are the primary goals in the management of heart failure. Evidence-based medicine provides clinicians with the best armamentarium to provide high quality and cost-effective care to patients diagnosed with this chronic, progressive, and debilitating condition. A multidisciplinary approach to care can be instrumental in the management of these complex patients. Further studies are warranted in elderly patients to provide the evidence for optimal therapies in this frail population.     

Measurement of cardiac functioning in older adults with heart failure after exercise

Although the length of a hospital stay is very limited for patients with heart failure, many patients attempt to resume some activities of daily living soon after arrival at home. Home care nurses routinely assess symptoms indicative of recurrent heart failure and the need for hospital readmission. The purpose of this comparative study was to determine whether there was a significant difference in diastolic blood pressure and oxygen saturation after walking for 6 min. Twenty adults with heart failure in an outpatient cardiology clinic were evaluated after the 6-min walk test. Although diastolic blood pressure and oxygen saturation were not significantly different after walking for 6 min, functional status was significantly related to oxygen saturation. Further study with home care clients is needed to evaluate the relation between activity and oxygen saturation.     

Pacemaker implantation as a risk factor for heart failure in young adults with congenital heart disease

AIM: Complete postoperative heart block following open-heart surgery and sinus node dysfunction are indications for permanent cardiac pacing in children with congenital heart defects. The purpose of our study was to evaluate if cardiac pacing is a risk factor of heart failure during longtime follow-up of grown ups with congenital heart disease (GUCH). METHODS: For an objective assessment of heart failure, NT-Pro brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and maximal oxygen uptake index (VO2max) during the cardiopulmonary exercise testing were measured in 346 consecutive GUCH patients during a longtime follow-up examination. RESULTS: Thirty-nine of these patients who had pacemaker implantation had significantly increased BNP levels (448.2 +/- 76.8 vs 123.8 +/- 9.7 pg/mL, P < 0.0001) and significantly decreased VO(2max) (22.5 +/- 0.9 vs 27.4 +/- 0.4, P < 0.0001). Heart failure in pacemaker patients was associated with significantly prolonged QRS complex durations (171.1 +/- 8.3 ms vs 108.7 +/- 1.8 ms, P < 0.0001), increased right ventricular end diastolic diameters (38.7 +/- 2.1 mm vs 27.8 +/- 0.5mm, P < 0.0001), lower heart rates at rest (69.5 +/- 1.9/min vs 82 +/- 1/min, P < 0.0001), and at exercise (140.3 +/- 5.8/min vs 163.5 +/- 1.2/min, P < 0.0001). Mean fractional shortening of the left ventricle was normal in both patient groups. CONCLUSION: Pacemaker implantation may be associated with heart failure during longtime follow-up of GUCH indicated by significantly elevated BNP levels and decreased VO2max. Possible explanations are prolongation of QRS complex duration, decreased maximal heart rates during exercise, and dilatation of the right ventricle.     

Diagnosis of the hibernating myocardium in early stages of heart failure in patients with coronary heart disease

The paper presents current views on ischemia-reperfusion and mechanisms of its development. Their role in the development of the hibernating myocardium is shown. Possible clinical manifestations of these conditions and currently available diagnostic techniques are assessed. The purpose of the study was to detect the hibernating myocardium in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) and arterial hypertension (AH). The study enrolled 13 patients with CHD and AH. Myocardial biventricular scintigraphy was conducted in patients before treatment and during acute coronarolytic test. Prior to treatment, all the patients were found to have reversible asynergy, left and right ventricular myocardial hypo- and dyskinesia caused by the hibernating myocardium. The drug test revealed better segmental contractility than the baseline one due to the fact that the function of asynergic segments recovered and fraction ejection increased. The findings suggest that the hibernating myocardium is diagnosed in patients with CHD and AH without myocardial infarction, which is of importance in determining treatment policy and prognosis in these patients.