Prediction of adolescent smoking from family and social risk factors at 5 years, and maternal smoking in pregnancy and at 5 and 14 years

AIMS: This study examines associations between maternal smoking and family, social or child risk factors when the child is aged 5 and adolescent smoking. The influence of mothers who smoke in pregnancy or continue to smoke at 14 years was also examined. DESIGN: The Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy is a prospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included 8556 women enrolled between 1981 and 1984 at their first antenatal visit. Completed questionnaires were obtained for 7223 offspring, comprising the study birth cohort. Of the 7223 eligible children a total of 4541 had information on both maternal smoking when the child was aged 5 years and adolescent smoking at 14 years. MEASUREMENTS: Measures included maternal smoking during pregnancy and when the child was aged 5 and 14 years, child smoking at 14 years, maternal alcohol use, child behaviour problems and social and demographic variables. FINDINGS: Adolescent smoking was predicted by a risk score at 5 years involving maternal smoking and alcohol use, non-married status, having a partner who had ever been arrested, having four or more children in the household, and child aggression at 5 years. Continued maternal smoking from 5 to 14 years was associated strongly with adolescent smoking. There was also evidence that smoking in late pregnancy may exert an independent effect on adolescent smoking. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest the possibility of a direct effect of prenatal smoking on adolescent smoking and highlight a set of environmental risk factors in the development of adolescent smoking. These risk factors may be used as early warning signs that intervention may be needed, and given the similarities with risk factors for other adverse childhood outcomes, the benefits of early intervention may extend beyond smoking to other problem behaviours. The possibility of being able to predict other disorders, because of these associations, also warrants further investigation.     

Prenatal maternal alcohol consumption and hospitalization with asthma in childhood: a population-based follow-up study

BACKGROUND: Asthma may have a prenatal origin. We examined whether maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy increases the risk of hospitalization with asthma in children. METHODS: We conducted a follow-up study on 10,440 singletons born at approximately 36 weeks of gestation or later to mothers attending midwife centers between April 1984 and April 1987 in Denmark. The mothers completed a questionnaire regarding lifestyle and socioeconomic factors, including alcohol consumption. The children were followed up through the Danish Hospital Discharge Registry. We determined the first hospitalization with a discharge diagnosis of asthma as recorded in the Danish Hospital Discharge Registry. RESULTS: Most pregnant women (81.5%) drank at least some alcohol during pregnancy, but only a few (2.1%) consumed 120 g or more per week. In total, 307 children were hospitalized at least once with a discharge diagnosis of asthma during follow-up (the cumulative incidence risk was 3.5% from birth to 12 years of age or the end of follow-up). After adjusting for maternal socioeconomic factors, dietary components, and other lifestyle factors, children whose mothers drank alcohol during pregnancy did not have an increased risk of hospitalization with asthma compared with the children of mothers who reported no alcohol consumption during pregnancy (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 0.95; 95% confidence interval, 0.70-1.29). Further analyses showed no association with the dose and type of alcohol or with binge drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides no support for a causal link between maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy and asthma in childhood.     

A Metric of Maternal Prenatal Risk Drinking Predicts Neurobehavioral Outcomes in Preschool Children

Background: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs), including Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, continue to be high‐incidence developmental disorders. Detection of patterns of maternal drinking that place fetuses at risk for these disorders is critical to diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, but is challenging and often insufficient during pregnancy. Various screens and measures have been used to identify maternal risk drinking but their ability to predict child outcome has been inconsistent. This study hypothesized that a metric of fetal “at‐risk” alcohol exposure (ARAE) derived from several indicators of maternal self‐reported drinking would predict alcohol‐related neurobehavioral dysfunctions in children better than individual measures of maternal alcohol consumption alone. Methods: Self‐reported peri‐conceptional and repeated maternal drinking during pregnancy were assessed with semi‐structured interviews and standard screens, i.e., the CAGE, T‐ACE, and MAST, in a prospective sample of 75 African‐American mothers. Drinking volumes per beverage type were converted to standard quantity and frequency measures. From these individual measures and screening instruments, a simple dichotomous index of prenatal ARAE was defined and used to predict neurobehavioral outcomes in the 4‐ to 5‐year‐old offspring of these women. Study outcomes included IQ, attention, memory, visual‐motor integration, fine motor skill, and behavior. Statistical analyses controlled for demographic and other potential confounders. Results: The current “at‐risk” drinking metric identified over 62% of the mothers as drinking at risk levels—23% more than the selection criterion identified—and outperformed all individual quantity and frequency consumption measures, including averages of weekly alcohol use and “binge” alcohol exposures (assessed as intake per drinking occasion), as well as an estimate of the Maternal Substance Abuse Checklist ( Coles et al., 2000 ), in predicting prenatal alcohol‐related cognitive and behavioral dysfunction in 4‐ to 5‐year‐old children. Conclusions: A metric reflecting multiple indices of “at‐risk” maternal alcohol drinking in pregnancy had greater utility in predicting various prenatal alcohol‐related neurobehavioral dysfunction and deficits in children compared to individual measures of maternal self‐reported alcohol consumption or a previous maternal substance abuse index. Assessing fetal risk drinking in pregnant women was improved by including multiple indicators of both alcohol consumption and alcohol‐related consequences and, if appropriate practical applications are devised, may facilitate intervention by health care workers during pregnancy and potentially reduce the incidence or severity of FASDs.     

The Impact of Maternal Age on the Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure on Attention

Background: Prenatal exposure to alcohol has a variety of morphologic and neurobehavioral consequences, yet more than 10% of women continue to drink during pregnancy, placing their offspring at risk for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Identification of at‐risk pregnancies has been difficult, in part, because the presence and severity of FASD are influenced by factors beyond the pattern of alcohol consumption. Establishing maternal characteristics, such as maternal age, that increase the risk of FASD is critical for targeted pregnancy intervention. Methods: We examined the moderating effect of maternal age on measures of attention in 462 children from a longitudinal cohort born to women with known alcohol consumption levels (absolute ounces of alcohol per day at conception) who were recruited during pregnancy. Analyses examined the impact of binge drinking, as average ounces of absolute alcohol per drinking day. Smoking and use of cocaine, marijuana, and opiates were also assessed. At 7 years of age, the children completed the Continuous Performance Test, and their teachers completed the Achenbach Teacher Report Form. Results: After controlling for covariates, stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed a negative relation between levels of prenatal binge drinking and several measures of attention. The interaction between alcohol consumption and maternal age was also significant, indicating that the impact of maternal binge drinking during pregnancy on attention was greater among children born to older drinking mothers. Conclusion: These findings are consistent with previous findings that children born to older alcohol‐using women have more deleterious effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on other neurobehavioral outcomes.     

Is maternal smoking more determinant than paternal smoking on the respiratory symptoms of young children?

BACKGROUND: It is generally accepted that maternal smoking has more detrimental effects than paternal smoking on the respiratory health of children. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of postnatal exposure due to the smoking behaviour by father and mother in the home, and prenatal exposure from maternal smoking during pregnancy, on the respiratory symptoms in children. METHODS: The parents of 484 children, aged 3-6 years, completed a questionnaire about smoking and respiratory symptoms in children. Bivariate and logistic regression analyses were used to examine the associated factors with respiratory symptoms. RESULTS: The final model of logistic regression analysis showed that prenatal exposure by maternal smoking during pregnancy increased the risk of wheezing with colds (adjusted OR=2.00, 95% CI:1.13-3.55) with respect to those children whose mothers reported no smoking during pregnancy. Postnatal exposure by maternal smoking in the home, in the presence of the child, increased the risk of cough with phlegm (adjusted OR=2.79, 95% CI:1.23-6.30) with respect to those children whose mothers did not smoke in their presence. Paternal smoking was associated with wheezing and cough in the bivariate analysis, but did not remain significant in the multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Our results underline a greater influence of exposure to maternal smoking (prenatal and postnatal) than postnatal paternal smoking on the development of respiratory symptoms in young children.     

Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure and cognitive status of children at age 10

BACKGROUND: The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) on measures of intelligence have been well documented in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. However, deficits in general intellectual ability in children with low to moderate PAE are less well understood. The objective of this study was to assess the association between moderate PAE and cognitive ability in children at age 10 controlling for other prenatal and birth factors, maternal and child psychosocial factors, and environmental characteristics. METHODS: Data were collected as part of the Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Project, a prospective study of prenatal substance use with 636 mother-child pairs. Women were assessed during each trimester of pregnancy and with their children at birth; 8 and 18 months; and 3, 6, and 10 years. Each phase included an evaluation of growth, development, cognitive, and psychological functioning. At age 10, cognitive ability was assessed using the composite score and verbal, abstract/visual, quantitative, and short-term memory area scores of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, fourth edition. Maternal intellectual ability, maternal prenatal and current drug use, maternal and child psychosocial characteristics, demographics, and home environment were included in the analysis. RESULTS: A significant relation was found between alcohol exposure during the first and second trimesters and the composite score of the Stanford-Binet for African American children at age 10. Significant relations were also found for the verbal, abstract/visual, and quantitative subscales. Additional predictors of IQ at age 10 included mother's IQ, home environment, and child's report of depression. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant association between PAE and cognitive ability at age 10 among African American offspring. There was no relation between PAE and scores on the Stanford-Binet scales among the Caucasian offspring.     

Prenatal alcohol exposure and depressive features in children

BACKGROUND: This study examined the association between prenatal alcohol exposure and self-report of depressive symptoms in 5- to 6-year-old children. Higher levels of prenatal alcohol exposure were hypothesized to be associated with endorsement of a greater number of depressive symptoms in children. It was also hypothesized that maternal depression, although associated with drinking behavior, would contribute independently to outcome. Finally, the mother's behavior toward the child, as well as current drinking practices, were postulated to mediate the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure and child depressive symptoms. METHODS: Participants were 41 mother-child dyads who had been followed longitudinally since the children were 1 year of age. Self-report questionnaires for maternal and child depression were used. RESULTS: Results revealed that prenatal alcohol exposure, maternal depression, and child gender seemed to be highly associated with child depressive symptoms. Girls who had higher levels of prenatal alcohol exposure and whose mothers acknowledged higher levels of depression endorsed the highest number of depressive symptoms. Neither the mother's behavior in interaction with the child nor her current level of alcohol consumption mediated the relationship. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of considering prenatal alcohol exposure as a risk variable in the prediction of childhood-onset depression and the possible neurological mechanisms underlying depression in children with alcohol exposure in utero are discussed.     

Alcohol, Marijuana, and Tobacco: Effects of Prenatal Exposure on Offspring Growth and Morphology at Age Six

Little is known about the long-term effects of prenatal exposure to alcohol. There are even fewer reports on the longitudinal effects of exposure to either marijuana or tobacco during pregnancy. This study is on the 6-year follow-up of 668 children enrolled in the Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Project. Mothers were interviewed at the 4th and 7th months of pregnancy, and mothers and children were evaluated at delivery, 8, and 18 months, and 3 and 6 years postpartum. At 6 years of age, children who were exposed to alcohol prenatally were significantly smaller in weight, height, head circumference, and palpebral fissure width. These effects on size were mediated by the effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on the offspring at 8 months. Prenatal alcohol exposure was also significantly associated with maternal reports of the child's appetite at 6 years. There were no effects of prenatal marijuana or tobacco exposure on growth when the children were age 6. There were also no significant relationships between prenatal exposure to alcohol, marijuana, or tobacco and the rate of morphologic anomalies, including the features of the fetal alcohol syndrome.     

Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol syndrome and partial fetal alcohol syndrome in South Africa: a third study

Objectives: This is a third exploration of risk factors for the two most severe forms of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and Partial FAS (PFAS), in a South African community with the highest reported prevalence of FAS in the world. Methods: In a case control design, interview and collateral data concerning mothers of 72 first grade children with FAS or PFAS are compared with 134 randomly selected maternal controls of children from the same schools. Results: Significant differences were found between the mothers of FASD children and controls in socio‐economic status, educational attainment, and a higher prevalence of FASD among rural residents. The birth order of the index children, gravidity, and still birth were significantly higher among mothers of FASD children. Mothers of children with a FASD are less likely to be married and more likely to have a male partner who drank during the index pregnancy. Current and gestational alcohol use by mothers of FASD children is bingeing on weekends, with no reduction in drinking reported in any trimester in 75 to 90% of the pregnancies that resulted in an FAS child or during 50 to 87% of PFAS‐producing pregnancies. There was significantly less drinking among the controls in the second and third trimesters (11 to 14%). Estimated peak blood alcohol concentrations (BAC)s of the mothers of PFAS children range from 0.155 in the first trimester to 0.102 in the third, and for mothers of FAS children the range is from 0.197 to 0.200 to 0.191 in the first, second, and third. Smoking percentage during pregnancy was significantly higher for mothers of FASD children (82 to 84%) than controls (35%); but average quantity smoked is low in the 3 groups at 30 to 41 cigarettes per week. A relatively young average age of the mother at the time of FAS and PFAS births (28.8 and 24.8 years respectively) is not explained by early onset of regular drinking (mean = 20.3 to 20.5 years of age). But the mean years of alcohol consumption is different between groups, 16.3, 10.7, and 12.1 years respectively for mothers of FAS, FASD, and drinking controls. Mothers of FAS and PFAS children were significantly smaller in height and weight than controls at time of interview. The child’s total dysmorphology score correlates significantly with mother’s weight (?0.46) and BMI (?0.39). Bivariate correlations are significant between the child’s dysmorphology and known independent demographic and behavioral maternal risk factors for FASD: higher gravidity and parity; lower education and income; rural residence; drinks consumed daily, weekly, and bingeing during pregnancy; drinking in all trimesters; partner's alcohol consumption during pregnancy; and use of tobacco during pregnancy. Similar significant correlations were also found for most of the above independent maternal risk variables and the child’s verbal IQ, non‐verbal IQ and behavioral problems. Conclusions: Maternal data in this population are generally consistent with a spectrum of effects exhibited in the children. Variation within the spectrum links greater alcohol doses with a greater severity of effects among children of older and smaller mothers of lower socio economic status in their later pregnancies. Prevention is needed to address known maternal risk factors for FASD in this population.     

Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Development at Preschool Age: Main Results of a French Study

Very high levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy are harmful for the central nervous system of the child and affect morphogenesis and growth. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on development at preschool age in a longitudinal study. Pregnant women were interviewed on their alcohol consumption during pregnancy at their first visit to the maternity hospital of Roubaix, France. The development of their 160 children was assessed at the age of 4½. Multiple regression analyses indicated that consumption of 1.5 oz of absolute alcohol (approximately 3 drinks) or more during pregnancy was significantly related to a decrease of 7 points on the general cognitive index of the McCarthy scales, after controlling for confounders. This level of consumption was also related to a higher score on minor neurological anomalies, a lower height of the child, and a higher score on facial features. This level of 1.5 oz of absolute alcohol/day should not be interpreted as a biological threshold, because the study does not allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the effects of lower levels of alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can affect the development of the child, at levels well below those associated with fetal alcohol syndrome.     

The effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early infant lung function.

We studied the effect of prenatal maternal cigarette smoking on the pulmonary function (PF) of 80 healthy infants tested shortly after birth (mean, 4.2 +/- 1.9 wk). Mothers' prenatal smoking was measured by: (1) questionnaire reports at each prenatal visit of the number of cigarettes smoked per day, and (2) urine cotinine concentrations (corrected for creatinine) obtained at each visit. Infant PF was assessed by partial expiratory flow-volume curves and helium-dilution measurement of FRC. Forced expiratory flow rates were significantly lower in infants born to smoking mothers, both when unadjusted and after controlling for infant size, age, sex, and passive exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) between birth and the time of PF testing. Flow at functional residual capacity (VFRC) in infants born to smoking mothers was lower than that found in infants whose mothers did not smoke during pregnancy (74.3 +/- 15.9 versus 150.4 +/- 8.9 ml/s; p = 0.0007). Differences remained significant when flow was corrected for lung size (VFRC/FRC: 0.87 +/- 0.26 versus 1.77 +/- 0.12 s-1; p = 0.013). No differences in pulmonary function were evident among infants exposed and unexposed to ETS in the home after stratifying by prenatal exposure status. We conclude that maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with significant reductions in forced expiratory flow rates in young infants. The results suggest that maternal smoking during pregnancy may impair in utero airway development and/or alter lung elastic properties. We speculate that these effects of maternal prenatal smoking on early levels of forced expiratory flow may be an important factor predisposing infants to the occurrence of wheezing illness later in childhood.     

Prenatal alcohol exposure and attachment behavior in children

BACKGROUND: This study examined the association between prenatal alcohol exposure and attachment behavior in 4- and 5-year-old children. Prenatal alcohol exposure was hypothesized to be associated with insecure attachment behavior of the child toward the mother. It was also hypothesized that children with heavier prenatal alcohol exposure would exhibit higher levels of negative affect as well as poorer coping skills. The quality of maternal support in interaction with the child was predicted to mediate prenatal exposure effects. METHODS: Participants were 42 mother-child dyads, the majority of whom came from poverty backgrounds in which the mother was a single parent. Attachment security was measured using the Attachment Q-Set. RESULTS: Results revealed that prenatal alcohol exposure was highly related to attachment insecurity. Eighty percent of children who were exposed to alcohol during gestation were insecure, whereas 36% of unexposed children were insecure. Prenatal alcohol exposure also predicted child negative affect, which was related to lower levels of maternal emotional support of the child. However, when the mothers of the prenatally exposed children provided high levels of support, these children evidenced better coping skills and more secure attachment relations. CONCLUSIONS: Although prenatal alcohol exposure was found to relate to higher levels of insecure attachment, children of mothers who provided them with emotional support were more able to deal with frustration. These children also exhibited higher levels of attachment security. Thus, the mother's supportive presence may mediate the association between prenatal alcohol exposure and the child's security of attachment.     

Perinatal smoking exposure and risk of asthma in the first three years of life: A prospective prebirth cohort study

BackgroundThere is limited evidence on the association between prenatal smoking exposure and the risk of asthma in children. The aim of this prebirth cohort study was to investigate the association between prenatal and postnatal tobacco smoke exposure and the risk of asthma in Japanese children.MethodsStudy subjects were 1304 mother–child pairs. Information on the variables under study was obtained using repeated questionnaires that were completed by mothers, first prior to delivery, then shortly after birth and subsequently around 4, 12, 24, and 36 months after delivery. Ever asthma was defined as a maternal report of physician-diagnosed asthma at any time since birth. Current asthma was defined as the use of asthma medication at the time of the sixth survey.ResultsLogistic regression models revealed that maternal active smoking, either before pregnancy or during pregnancy, was not associated with the risk of ever asthma or current asthma. Further, no association was observed between postnatally living with at least one household smoker and the risk of asthma. Among children whose mothers are never smokers, maternal second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure at work and/or at home during pregnancy increased the risk of ever asthma and current asthma in children; adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) for ever asthma and current asthma were 2.41 (1.13–5.05) and 4.82 (1.68–13.43), respectively.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that maternal SHS exposure during pregnancy might be associated with an increased risk of ever asthma and current asthma in young children whose mothers have never smoked.     

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in children residing in Russian orphanages: a phenotypic survey

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use in Russia is among the highest in the world. Over 600,000 children reside in institutional care in Russia, most of them in baby homes and orphanages. The actual prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) among these children is unknown. Therefore, we performed a systematic survey of phenotypic features associated with prenatal alcohol exposure among institutionalized Russian children and related these findings to their growth, development, medical, and social histories. METHODS: Phenotypic screening was conducted of all 234 baby home residents in the Murmansk region of Russia (mean age 21+12.6 months). Phenotypic expression scores were devised based on facial dysmorphology and other readily observable physical findings. Growth measurements from birth, time of placement in the baby home, and at present were analyzed. In addition, the charts of 64% of the children were randomly selected for retrospective review. Information collected included maternal, medical, developmental, and social histories. RESULTS: Thirteen percent of children had facial phenotype scores highly compatible with prenatal alcohol exposure and 45% had intermediate facial phenotype scores. These scores correlated with maternal gravidity and age. At least 40% of mothers in whom history was available ingested alcohol during pregnancy; some also used illicit drugs and tobacco. Z scores for growth measurements corresponded to phenotypic score, as did the degree of developmental delay. Children with no or mild delay had significantly lower phenotypic scores than those with moderate or severe delay (p = 0.04); more than 70% of children with high phenotypic scores were moderately or severely delayed. CONCLUSIONS: More than half of residents of the baby homes in Murmansk, Russia, have intermediate (45%) or high (13%) phenotypic expression scores suggesting prenatal exposure to alcohol. Despite good physical care, stable daily routine, availability of well-trained specialists, and access to medical care, these vulnerable children show significant growth and developmental delays compared with their institutionalized peers.     

Maternal age, alcohol abuse history, and quality of parenting as moderators of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on 7.5-year intellectual function

BACKGROUND: In contrast to the extensive literature documenting IQ deficits in patients with fetal alcohol syndrome, effects on IQ have not generally been reported for children with alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND). This study examined the role of maternal age, MAST, and quality of parenting in moderating the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on the WISC-III IQ test in moderate-to-heavily exposed children. METHODS: A total of 337 inner-city African American children whose mothers were recruited prenatally were administered the WISC-III at 7.5 years. Alcohol exposure was assesed with a timeline follow-back interview administered at every prenatal clinic visit. Moderating effects of the three risk factors were examined by adding interaction terms to regression analyses and dichotomizing the moderators and performing separate regressions on the two groups. RESULTS: Prenatal alcohol exposure was related to WISC-III Freedom from Distractibility but not to Full Scale IQ for the sample as a whole. However, among children born to older mothers, an alcohol effect emerged on Full Scale IQ and five of seven composite IQ scores. Similarly, adverse effects were seen among children of MAST-positive mothers and children whose parents provided less optimal cognitive stimulation. Each additional ounce of absolute alcohol consumed per day during pregnancy was associated with a 2.9-point decrease in Full Scale IQ and a 5.6-point decrement on Freedom from Distractibility. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to demonstrate IQ effects among children with ARND born to older and MAST-positive mothers, particularly in relation to first-trimester drinking. These findings suggest that there are subgroups of more vulnerable and severely affected children whose intellectual performance is compromised. A moderate- to heavy-drinking mother who has given birth to an unaffected child when she was younger needs to be warned that her risk of having an adversely affected child increases as she grows older.     

Do maternal parenting practices predict problematic patterns of adolescent alcohol consumption?

Objective This study examines whether a mother's style of parenting at child age 5 years predicts problematic patterns of drinking in adolescence, after controlling for relevant individual, maternal and social risk factors. Methods Data were used from the Mater‐University Study of Pregnancy, an Australian longitudinal study of mothers and their children from pregnancy to when the children were 14 years of age. Logistic regression analyses examined whether maternal parenting practices at child age 5 predicted problematic drinking patterns in adolescence, after controlling for a range of confounding covariates. Results Physical punishment at child age 5 did not predict adolescent alcohol problems at follow‐up. Results indicated that low maternal control at child age 5 predicted adolescent occasional drinking patterns at age 14. More frequent maternal partner change coupled with lower levels of control was the strongest predictor of more problematic patterns of drinking by adolescents. Conclusions These findings highlight the importance of family structure and level of parental control in the development of problematic patterns of drinking in adolescence.     

Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and child aggressive behavior

This study's objective was to examine the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood aggressive behavior in African-American and Puerto Rican children, as well as the relationship between maternal unconventional behavior, low maternal affection, and offspring aggression. Participants consisted of African-American and Puerto Rican children (N = 203; mean age = 8.6, SD = 0.87) and their mothers living in an inner city community. An interview consisting of a structured questionnaire was administered to the mothers and their children. Scales with adequate psychometric properties were adapted from previous validated measures. They included maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal education, unconventionality, and warmth. Controlling for demographic factors, maternal unconventional behavior, and low maternal warmth, maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with having offspring who were aggressive. Maternal unconventionality and warmth were independently related to childhood aggression. Although causal limitations are noted, it may be that a decrease in smoking during pregnancy is associated with a reduction in aggression in the offspring.     

Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure

BACKGROUND: This study investigated the effects of moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on learning and memory in 14-year-old adolescents. The Children's Memory Scale was used to assess learning and memory function in the verbal/auditory and visual/spatial domains. In addition, both short- and long-term memory function were assessed. METHODS: Data were collected as part of the Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Project, a longitudinal study including 580 children and their mothers. Women were assessed during each trimester of pregnancy and with their children from birth to 16 years of age. At age 14, memory function was evaluated using the Children's Memory Scale, an assessment tool that measures learning and immediate and delayed memory function in the verbal and visual-spatial domains. RESULTS: Prenatal alcohol exposure during the first trimester predicted deficits in learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory, specifically in the verbal domain. Deficits in performance were specific to learning and memory of word-pairs. In addition, deficits in memory were mediated by learning performance. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrated that prenatal alcohol exposure lead to deficits in encoding processes as indicated by deficits in verbal learning. Initial deficits in acquisition were responsible for deficits in immediate and delayed recall of verbal information in children who were exposed to alcohol during pregnancy but did not have fetal alcohol syndrome.