Pressure mapping of the radioulnar carpal joint: effects of ulnar lengthening and wrist position

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of ulnar lengthening and wrist position on force transmission through the radioulnar carpal joint in a forced dorsiflexed wrist position. Eight cadaveric arms were subjected to a 30 kg compressive load directed down the forearm towards the wrist. A pressure sensor recorded forces across the wrist joint with the triangular fibrocartilage complex intact and excised. The biomechanics of the distal radioulnar joint were altered by changes in ulnar length and wrist position. Pressures at the ulnolunate articulation increased as the ulna was lengthened and were significantly lower when the triangular fibrocartilage complex was excised. An inverse relationship between triangular fibrocartilage complex thickness and ulnar variance was shown. Greater increases in ulnolunate pressure were observed in more positive ulnar variant wrists.     

The incidence of dorsal radiocarpal ligament tears in patients having diagnostic wrist arthroscopy for wrist pain

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to examine the incidence of dorsal radiocarpal ligament (DRCL) tears in patients having diagnostic arthroscopy for chronic wrist pain. METHODS: A chart review was performed of 64 patients who had diagnostic wrist arthroscopy for chronic wrist pain that was refractory to conservative measures. For each case, interosseous ligament instability/tears were graded according to the Geissler classification. Tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex and the presence or absence of a DRCL tear were noted. RESULTS: There were 35 of 64 wrists (in 64 patients) with DRCL tears. The average duration of wrist pain prior to treatment was 20 months. Only 10 patients could recall a specific injury. Five patients had an isolated DRCL tear. A scapholunate interosseous ligament injury was identified in 13 patients, of whom 7 had a concomitant DRCL tear. A lunotriquetral interosseous ligament injury was present in 7 patients, of whom 2 had a concomitant DRCL tear. Two patients had a capitohamate ligament tear: 1 of these patients had a DRCL tear. There were 7 patients with a solitary triangular fibrocartilage complex tear: 6 of 7 were in association with a DRCL tear. One patient had a chronic ulnar styloid nonunion and a DRCL tear. Two or more lesions were present in 23 patients; DRCL tears were present in 12. CONCLUSIONS: DRCL tears are commonly seen with injuries to the primary wrist stabilizers. Recognition of this condition and further research into treatment methods are needed. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic IV.     

Hemiresection-interposition arthroplasty of the distal radioulnar joint associated with repair of triangular fibrocartilage complex lesions.

Sixteen wrists of 15 patients with traumatic triangular fibrocartilage complex tears were treated by hemiresection-interposition arthroplasty of the distal radioulnar joint combined with repair of the torn triangular fibrocartilage complex. The surgical procedure was performed to avoid impingement of the ulnar head against the reconstructed triangular fibrocartilage complex. Most of the wrists showed a positive ulnar variance. The average age of the patients was 39 years. Follow-up averaged 41 months. Complete relief of pain was obtained in 10 wrists. Slight pain persisted in 6 wrists, although it was less than before surgery. The range of motion of the wrist joint and forearm improved postoperatively. Grip strength in all wrists increased. Postoperative complications occurred in 7 wrists of 6 patients: reoperation in 2 wrists, fracture in 1, and tendinitis of the extensor carpi ulnaris in 4. All 15 patients subsequently returned to their previous occupations.     

Combined arthroscopic TFCC debridement and wafer resection of the distal ulna in wrists with triangular fibrocartilage complex tears and positive ulnar variance

Because a certain percentage of patients with positive ulnar variance experience incomplete pain relief after triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) debridement alone, we prospectively evaluated the feasibility and efficacy of combining arthroscopic TFCC debridement with arthroscopic wafer resection in such wrists as part of the same surgical procedure. We enrolled 12 patients between July 1998 and July 2000 and performed both subjective and objective assessment at follow-up with a minimum of 6 months and an average of 14 months. Seven posttraumatic and 5 degenerative tears were identified. Preoperative ulnar variance with a pronated grip x-ray averaged 2 mm and ranged between 1 and 4 mm. At final review 8 patients experienced complete pain relief and 4 experienced only minimal symptoms. The ulnocarpal stress test failed to elicit pain in any wrist. Nine patients were very satisfied, and 3 were satisfied. Grip strength improved 8 kg (36%). This procedure should be considered in the treatment of ulnar wrist pain when TFCC tears and positive ulnar variance coexist.     

Peripheral tears of triangular fibrocartilage complex: results of primary repair

In 16 patients with ulnar wrist pain, we performed primary arthroscopic or open repair of the peripheral rim tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) (14 ulnar, 4 volar, and 3 radial tears). The wrist function was assessed before and 1 year after the repair using the Mayo-modified wrist score. The average pain score improved from 9.1+/-8.0 to 21.2+/-6.5, the average functional score from 5.0+/-8.1 to 20.6+/-6.3, the average motion score from 4.7+/-2.8 to 15.6+/-7.3, and the average grip point from 4.4+/-3.5 to 15.6+/-7.7, all with significant differences (P<0.01). Ten of the 17 cases had instability of the distal radioulnar joint and five had recurrent instability after repair.     

Digital subtraction arthrography of the wrist

Digital subtraction arthrography of the wrist was used to identify abnormalities in eighty-six (60 per cent) of 139 patients during a fifteen-month period. Multiple abnormalities were noted in thirty-four (25 per cent) of the wrists. The clinical signs and symptoms in the eighty-six wrists did not always correlate with the defects that were seen on the arthrograms. Three of five patients who had an isolated tear of the scapholunate ligament, six of thirteen who had an isolated tear of the lunotriquetral ligament, and seven of nineteen who had an isolated tear of the triangular fibrocartilage complex also had signs and symptoms on the opposite side of the wrist. Many of the lesions that were seen on arthrography may have been serendipitous, degenerative, or unrelated to a specific injury. There was a high prevalence of positive ulnar variance in patients who had at least one ulnar abnormality. Capsular tears, most often seen on the radiovolar aspect of the wrist, were best outlined by contrast medium injected into the radiocarpal joint. The arthroscopic findings differed from the arthrographic findings in five of the twenty patients in whom both studies were done. The three-compartment technique of injection is a valuable diagnostic tool. Injections of contrast medium into the distal radio-ulnar joint outlined five of thirteen tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex that were not seen after injection into the radiocarpal joint. Of the eleven tears that were seen after injection into the radiocarpal joint, five were not seen when contrast medium was injected into the distal radio-ulnar joint.     

Ulnar styloid fracture in children: a retrospective study of 46 cases

Ulnar styloid fractures are frequently ignored in the treatment of wrist fractures in children. Forty-six untreated ulnar styloid fractures (40 tip and six base fractures) associated with radial injuries (45 patients) were retrospectively analysed. At the removal of the cast, we recorded that 80% had a nonunion of the styloid fracture. Thirty-five patients were reviewed at an average of 19 months after treatment. Thirty tip fractures and five base avulsions were found. We recorded 28 patients with a good clinical result despite 21 cases of nonunion, whereas seven patients (all nonunions) had a fair result. All the fair results suffered from intermittent pain during sports and movement, radioulnar joint instability and tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex. It can be concluded that both distal radius and ulnar styloid fractures should be taken into account in the initial treatment and pain associated with a nonunion of the ulnar styloid in a child may be due to a tear of the triangular fibrocartilage complex.     

腕关节镜对三角纤维软骨复合体损伤的诊断和治疗价值分析

目的 对腕关节三角纤维软骨复合体(TFCC)损伤行关节镜检查,并分析其疗效.方法 对2006年1月至2009年12月诊断为TFCC损伤并行腕关节镜治疗的15例患者进行回顾性分析,其中男6例、女9例,平均年龄42岁,平均随访时间26.5个月.根据Palmer分型,Ⅰ型损伤5例(ⅠA型3例,ⅠB型1例,ⅠD型1例),Ⅱ型损伤10例(ⅡA型6例,ⅡC型4例).所有患者保守治疗3个月以上无效后行关节镜治疗.测量指标:腕关节疼痛、握力、关节活动度、腕关节评分(改良Mayo评分)、DASH问卷.结果 术后15例患者腕关节疼痛均有缓解,握力改善;腕关节屈伸(129±26)°,桡尺偏(40±8)°,旋转(174±11)°.按照改良Mayo评分:优3例,良8例,可4例;优良率为73%.术后DASH评分为4～28分,平均(15±7)分.结论 关节镜对于TFCC损伤的诊断明显优于MRI检查,而且关节镜能在检查的同时进行治疗,应作为腕尺痛的常规诊断手段.关节镜治疗各型TFCC损伤均能缓解疼痛,但Ⅰ型效果好于Ⅱ型.伴有尺骨正变异的TFCC损伤应同时行尺骨缩短术以提高术后效果.

Abstract：

Objective The objective of this study was to determine the efficiency of arthroscopic diagnosis and repair of triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears. Methods Fifteen cases of TFCC tears diagnosed and treated with arthroscopic repair in our hospital between January 2006 and December 2009 were retrospectively reviewed. There were six males and nine females. The average age was 42 years. The average follow-up was 26.5 months. TFCC tears were classified by Palmer classification as follows:ⅠA (3 cases),ⅠB (1 case),ⅠD (1 case),ⅡA (6 cases),and ⅡC (4 cases). Arthroscopic repair was performed after at least 3 months of conservative treatment failed. Wrist pain,grip strength,range of motion (ROM),wrist score (modified Mayo wrist score),disabilities of the arm,shoulder,and hand questionnaire (DASH) score were evaluated. Results Postoperatively alleviation of pain and improved grip strength was noted in all 15 patients. ROM averaged (129±26)° for the extension/flexion arc,(40±8)° for the radial/ulnar deviation arc,and (174±11)° for the pronation/supination arc of motion. The good-to-excellent rate of modified Mayo wrist score was 73% (excellent in 3 of patients,good in 8,fair in 4,and poor in 0). The average DASH score was 15±7 (range,4 to 28). Conclusion Standard arthroscopic procedure is more efficient in the diagnosis of TFCC injury than MRI. The advantage of simultaneous repair makes arthroscopic examination a normal procedure for patients with ulnar wrist pain. The outcome of type Ⅰ is better than type Ⅱ,although pain relief is obtained in each form of TFCC injuries after arthroscopic repair. In cases associated with marked positive ulnar variance,the simultaneous use of primary ulna-shortening osteotomy leads to promising results.     

Results of the wafer procedure for ulnar impaction syndrome in the ulnar negative and neutral wrist

Thirteen wrists with ulnar neutral or negative variance were treated by open distal ulna excision (the wafer procedure). The mean follow-up was 25 months (range, 12-38). At final follow-up grip strength had increased a mean of 14 kgf and 12 of the 13 patients were very satisfied with the functional outcome and pain relief. In treatment of the ulnar impaction syndrome, the wafer procedure provides excellent pain relief and functional restoration particularly in patients with ulnar neutral or negative wrists in whom triangular fibrocartilage tears have not yet developed.     

Comparison between conventional MRI and MR arthrography in the diagnosis of triangular fibrocartilage tears and correlation with arthroscopic findings

PurposeThe triangular fibrocartilage complex is one of the most important stabilizers of the wrist and a defect in its anatomical structure is a possible cause of ulnar sided wrist pain. The aim of this study is to compare the diagnostic accuracy between conventional MRI and MR arthrography (MRA) in the depiction of triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears.Methods-materialsA total of 60 patients with clinical findings that suggested TFCC tears underwent wrist MRI and MRA. All the MRI and MRA results were compared with the arthroscopic findings.Results40 tears were confirmed by arthroscopy. 38/40 tears were identified by MRA while MRI identified 26/40 tears. There were also 8 false positives and 13 false negative results identified by MRI. Two false negative results were identified by MRA. No false positive results were identified.ConclusionMR arthrography is more sensitive and specific method in terms of the diagnosis of TFCC tears compared to conventional wrist MRI. There was no difference in the diagnostic accuracy between wrist arthroscopy and MRA.     

An analysis of causes and treatment outcome of chronic wrist pain after distal radial fractures

Healed distal radial fractures are frequently complicated by chronic wrist pain which is multifactorial and can be debilitating. An accurate delineation of the pathoanatomy is the key for successful treatment. This study reviewed 22 patients who had surgical treatment between 1997 and 2001 for chronic wrist pain after distal radial fracture. Four patterns of pathoanatomy were identified: (1) ulnar impaction caused by radial malunion and shortening; (2) ulnar styloid non-union; (3) triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears with or without distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) instability; and (4) intercarpal ligament injuries and chondral lesions. Surgical treatment directed towards identified abnormalities gave satisfactory outcome. At six months after surgery the mean functional score improved 36%, mean pain score decreased 50%, mean grip strength improved 25%, and 64% of patients returned to work.     

Longitudinal split tears of the ulnotriquetral ligament

Unlike tears of the peripheral triangular fibrocartilage or avulsions of the distal radioulnar ligaments, longitudinal split tears of the ulnotriquetral (UT) ligament do not cause any instability to the distal radioulnar joint or the ulnocarpal articulation. It is mainly a pain syndrome that can be incapacitating. However, because the UT ligament arises from the palmar radioulnar ligament of the triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC), it is by definition, an injury of the TFCC. The purpose of this article is to describe the cause of chronic ulnar wrist pain arising from a longitudinal split tear of the UT ligament.     

Disruption of the ulnolunate ligament as a cause of chronic ulnar wrist pain

Chronic ulnar wrist pain is both difficult to diagnose and difficult to treat effectively. A number of anatomic derangements have been reported as potential causes of this pain. We discuss a patient with pain on the ulnar side of the wrist and an arthroscopically diagnosed disruption of the ulnolunate ligament. This was an isolated lesion, and the patient responded well to debridement.     

Distal radioulnar joint arthroscopy and the volar ulnar portal

Pain on the ulnar side of the wrist remains poorly understood. As attention has shifted toward the myriad causes of ulnar-sided wrist pain, the utility of viewing the wrist from a volar ulnar (VU) perspective has emerged. Lunotriquetral ligament tears have been implicated in the pathogenesis of volar intercalated segmental instabilities. They often originate in the palmar subregion, which is most important for maintaining stability. These tears are difficult to visualize through the 4, 5, or 6R portals. They are well seen through a VU portal, and the direct line of sight facilitates debridement. The VU portal has potential use in the arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of patients with injuries to the ulnar sling mechanism. It aids in triangular fibrocartilage repairs especially those involving the dorsal aspect between the ulnar styloid and the radial insertion, because the proximity of the 4, 5, and 6R portals makes triangulation of the instruments difficult. Although arthroscopy of the dorsal aspect of the distal radioulnar joint has been well described, it has largely remained a curiosity, with few clinical indications. Recent biomechanical studies have highlighted the importance of the deep attachment of the triangular fibrocartilage complex in maintaining distal radioulnar joint stability. The volar distal radioulnar portal is useful for assessing the foveal attachment. It may be used where there is the suspicion of a peripheral triangular fibrocartilage detachment due to a loss of its normal tension despite the lack of a visible tear during radiocarpal arthroscopy. The judicious use of these portals deserves consideration for inclusion as part of a thorough arthroscopic examination of selected patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain.     

Staged reconstruction for malunited fractures of the distal radius

This prospective study assessed the outcomes of 26 symptomatic malunited distal radial fractures which were treated with an opening wedge corrective osteotomy and bone grafting with rigid fixation. An ulnar shortening osteotomy was subsequently required as a second-stage operation in five cases to restore normal ulnar variance. A wrist arthroscopy was indicated as a third stage procedure with persistent ulnar sided wrist pain in order to address central tears of the triangular fibrocartilage. Satisfactory functional scores were achieved by 20 of the 26 patients after distal radial osteotomy alone and, 24 of the 26 after subsequent ulnar shortening osteotomies and arthroscopy when necessary. The one, two or three stage concept of reconstructing the malunited distal end radius could optimise the outcome rather than using a single-stage strategy.     

Extensor carpi ulnaris problems at the wrist--classification, surgical treatment and results

Twenty-eight extensor carpi ulnaris lesions at the wrist were treated surgically between 1990 and 2002. Fifteen patients had an isolated extensor carpi ulnaris tenosynovitis or tendinopathy, five had extensor carpi ulnaris dislocation, four had an extensor carpi ulnaris subluxation and four had an extensor carpi ulnaris rupture. Seventeen patients first developed their symptoms while playing sports. At a mean follow-up of 23 months, twenty-two patients had returned to their previous activities. Seven of the 27 patients had lost more than 30% of their grip strength and five had restricted wrist motion. Two needed an extensor carpi ulnaris tenolysis. Pure isolated extensor carpi ulnaris lesions are rare and associated ulnar sided lesions (eleven triangular fibrocartilage complex tears and four lunotriquetral ligament tears), as well as possible predisposing factors (seven anomalous tendon slips, four ulnar styloid non-unions and one flat extensor carpi ulnaris tendon groove), were frequent. A classification of extensor carpi ulnaris tendon and subsheath lesions was developed to allow the surgeon to adequately evaluate the different components of these lesions.     

The occult dorsal carpal ganglion

Chronic wrist pain has many causes, the diagnosis of which is often difficult. Clinical and anatomical research in this area has replaced the diagnosis of "wrist sprain" with a differential diagnosis including carpal chondromalacia, dynamic carpal instability, positive and negative ulnar variance, triangular fibrocartilage complex injuries, and early carpal avascular necrosis. The ubiquitous dorsal ganglion can also cause chronic wrist discomfort and the diagnosis of "occult dorsal carpal ganglion" should be included in the differential diagnosis. Nine patients with chronic wrist pain were diagnosed clinically as having an occult dorsal carpal ganglion despite the absence of a palpable mass. Each was treated by limited dorsal capsulectomy with excision of a small portion of the dorsal scapho-lunate ligament, and small intracapsular ganglia and/or cystic mucinous degeneration of the capsule were found in all nine patients. Of the eight patients available for follow-up examination, the preoperative pain was relieved in seven of the eight and no recurrences were noted at follow-up averaging six months.     

Editorial Commentary: In Cases of Concurrent Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex Tears and Ulnar Styloid Process Fracture Nonunions,We May Neither Need to Excise nor Repair the Ulnar Styloid Fracture Nonunion Fragment

The ulnar-sided wrist contains multiple potential pain generators that may present in isolation. Occasionally, however, wrist trauma results in multiple concurrent and overlapping injuries that make diagnosis and treatment of these conditions challenging. Deep/foveal tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) may occur in the setting of nonunited ulnar styloid process fractures. Treatment of these injuries has historically included open TFCC repair with fixation or excision of the ulnar styloid fracture nonunion fragment; however, recent literature suggests that addressing the ulnar styloid nonunion fragment may not be as important as we think. Recent research shows that we may not need to excise or repair the ulnar styloid fracture nonunion fragment, which in turn may help preserve the complex ligamentous architecture that stabilizes the ulnar-sided wrist. One thing we know for sure is that foveal tears of the deep fibers of the TFCC, with or without ulnar styloid fracture (Palmer 1B, Atzei class 2 or 3), can produce distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) instability and wrist dysfunction and should be addressed sooner rather than later to prevent long-term consequences, including DRUJ osteoarthritis. Whether you choose to approach the problem arthroscopically or open, the foveal TFCC tear should be repaired to prevent long-term sequalae.     

Störungen des distalen Radioulnargelenkes nach distaler Radiusfraktur

After a fracture of the distal radius, whether healed in an anatomic position or malunited, many patients complain about problems on the ulnar side of the wrist with pain and decreased range of forearm rotation. In addition many patients are unhappy with the unpleasant appearance of the wrist joint. The complaints are related to tears of the triangular fibrocartilaginous complex, instability, and/or incongruity of the distal radioulnar joint and degenerative changes. Malunion of the distal radius must be taken into account when discussing treatment options. The purpose of this paper is to describe a treatment algorithm with respect to the clinical symptoms, the pathology as well as the presence or absence of a deformity of the distal radius.     

Disorders of the distal radioulnar joint following fractures of the distal end of the radius

After a fracture of the distal radius, whether healed in an anatomic position or malunited, many patients complain about problems on the ulnar side of the wrist with pain and decreased range of forearm rotation. In addition many patients are unhappy with the unpleasant appearance of the wrist joint. The complaints are related to tears of the triangular fibrocartilaginous complex, instability, and/or incongruity of the distal radioulnar joint and degenerative changes. Malunion of the distal radius must be taken into account when discussing treatment options. The purpose of this paper is to describe a treatment algorithm with respect to the clinical symptoms, the pathology as well as the presence or absence of a deformity of the distal radius.