反义寡脱氧核苷酸在鸭体内抑制鸭乙型肝炎病毒复制与 …

目的 研究反义核酸的抗病毒作用。方法 设计合成了针对鸭乙型肝炎病毒（ＤＨＢＶ）前Ｓ（ＰｒｅＳ）基因区第９５１－９６８位核苷酸的硫代反义寡脱氧核苷酸（ＡＳ－ＯＤＮ），以２０μｇ／ｇ体重／日剂量对３只腹腔感染ＤＨＢＶ５．２毒株后，血清ＤＨＢｓＡｇ及ＤＨＢＶ ＤＮＡ阳性鸭连续静脉注射１０天，同时以等体积生理盐水注射另３只感染鸭作为对照。结果 对照鸭注射生理盐水后，血清ＤＨＢｓＡｇ及ＤＨＢＶ ＤＮＡ阳性未     

反义寡脱氧核苷酸在鸭体内抑制鸭乙型肝炎病毒复制与表达的研究

目的研究反义核酸的抗病毒作用。方法设计合成了针对鸭乙型肝炎病毒（ＤＨＢＶ）前Ｓ（ＰｒｅＳ）基因区第９５１９６８位核苷酸的硫代反义寡脱氧核苷酸（ＡＳＯＤＮ），以２０μｇ／ｇ体重／日剂量对３只腹腔感染ＤＨＢＶ５２毒株后，血清ＤＨＢｓＡｇ及ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ阳性鸭连续静脉注射１０天，同时以等体积生理盐水注射另３只感染鸭作为对照。结果对照鸭注射生理盐水后，血清ＤＨＢｓＡｇ及ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ阳性未见明显改变，肝组织ＤＮＡＳｏｕｔｈｅｒｎ杂交在３０与２３ｋｂ左右杂交信号明显。注射ＡＳＯＤＮ鸭在１０天后，２／３鸭血清ＤＨＢｓＡｇ及ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ量显著降低，３／３鸭肝组织中３０ｋｂ左右的杂交信号显著减弱，２３ｋｂ左右未见杂交信号。结论说明该段ＡＳＯＤＮ在鸭体内能部分抑制ＤＨＢＶ的复制与抗原表达。     

抗HBV最佳反义寡核苷酸片段的体外筛选

目的 寻找抗ＨＢＶ最佳反义寡核苷酸区段。方法 合成４种互补于ＨＢＶ不同区段的反义硫代寡核酸（ａｓＯＮ）,加入ＨＢＶ基因转染的肝癌细胞模型ＨｅｐＧ２２．２．１５,以ＥＬＳＡ法测定ＨＢｓＡｇ、ＨＢｅＡｇ含量。结果 互补于ｐｒｅ－Ｓ２翻译起始区的ａｓＯＮ（序列Ⅰ）抗ＨＢＶ基因表达作用最强（Ｐ〈０．０２）,对ＨＢｓＡｇ、ＨＢｅＡｇ的最高表达抑制率分别为６６％和９１％,针对增强Ⅱ（ＥＮⅡ）的序列Ⅲ也有较强的     

脐血β2—MG与新生儿ABO溶血病关系的探讨

为了探讨新生儿脐血β２－ＭＧ与新生儿ＡＢＯ溶血病（称ＡＢＯＨＤＮ）的关系，应用放射免疫法对８０例新生儿脐血β２－ＭＧ进行测定，同时测定脐血胆红素浓度，结果表明，脐血β２－ＭＧ越高，ＡＢＯＨＤＮ发生率越高，脐血β２－ＭＧ含量与ＡＢＯＨＤＮ的发生呈正相关（Ｐ＜０．０５），经统计学分析，以脐血β２－ＭＧ≥２５０μｇ／ｍｌ为指标，敏感性及特异性分别为６９７％、７９４％。以脐血胆红素≥４０μｍｏｌ／Ｌ为指标，敏感性及特异性分别为６０８％、７０６％，前者敏感性及特异性均大于后者。提示测定脐血β２－ＭＧ可以早期预测ＡＢＯＨＤＮ的发生。     

针对包装信号起始区的硫代反义核苷酸抗HBV的研究

目的筛选高效特异的抗ＨＢＶ反义核酸药物。方法针对ＨＢＶ包装信号ε起始区设计并合成硫代反义寡聚核苷酸（ｓ－ａｓＯＤＮ）片段，通过ＥＬＩＳＡ检测法、ＭＴＴ法、电子显微镜等观察，研究此ｓ－ａｓＯＤＮ对ＨＢｓＡｇ、ＨＢｅＡｇ和ＨＢｃＡｇ表达，以及对细胞毒性，细胞形态的影响。结果针对ε起始区的ｓ－ａｓＯＤＮ显著抑制ＨＢｓＡｇ、ＨＢｅＡｇ和ＨＢｃＡｇ的表达，其中，对ＨＢｅＡｇ和ＨＢｃＡｇ的抑制率分别为３８．１％和５８．７％高于Ｓ基因起始区（３２．１％和３７．２％，Ｐ＜０．０１），对ＨＢｓＡｇ抑制率为８２％，低于Ｓ基因起始区（９３．４１％），在实验浓度下ｓ－ａｓＯＤＮ对细胞无毒性，对细胞形态无影响。结论ＨＢＶ包装信号区是反义核酸抗ＨＢＶ复制研究的重要的靶序列选择区域。     

肝硬变内HBV DNA及其五种抗原的表达及意义

取２２５例人肝硬变活检组织石蜡切片，检测了ＨＢＶＤＮＡ及其５种抗原。分别用免疫组化ＡＢＣ法检测ＨＢｘＡｇ、ｐｒｅ－Ｓ＿１和ｐｒｅ－Ｓ＿２抗原；用ＰＡＰ法检测ＨＢｓＡｇ和ＨＢｃＡｇ；用原位杂交方法检测ＨＢＶＤＮＡ；用免疫组化、原位杂交双标记方法检测ＨＢＶＤＮＡ和ＨＢｓＡｇ、ＨＢｘＡｇ或ＨＢｃＡｇ。结果显示，阳性检出率ＨＢｓＡｇ为７０．０％（１２８／１８３例），ｐｒｅ－Ｓ＿１抗原为６４．４％（８５／１３２例）、ｐｒｅ－Ｓ＿２抗原为６１．４％（８１／１３２例），ＨＢｘＡｇ为７５．３％（１１３／１５０例），ＨＢｃＡｇ为２２．４％（３９／１７４例），ＨＢＶＤＮＡ为６２．４％（５８／９３例）。双标阳性检出率ＨＢＶＤＮＡ和ＨＢｓＡｇ为３７．３％（１９／５１例），ＨＢＶＤＮＡ和ＨＢｘ－Ａｇ为８６．３％（４４／５１例），ＨＢＶＤＮＡ和ＨＢｃＡｇ为３９．２％（２０／５１例）。ＨＢＶＤＮＡ和ＨＢＶ５种抗原阳性病例中８０％以上均伴有肝细胞不典型增生。这一结果表明，在我国肝硬变的发生发展与ＨＢＶ慢性感染有密切的关系。     

HBcAg/HBeAg对慢性乙型肝炎患者PBMC中Th1/Th2类细胞应答的影响

目的 探讨ＨＢｃＡｇ／ＨＢｅＡｇ对慢性乙型肝炎患者ＰＢＭＣ中Ｔｈ１／Ｔｈ２类细胞应答的影响。方法 用套式ＰＣＲ法检测６４便慢性ＨＢＶ感染者ＰＢＭＣ中ＨＶＢ ＤＮＡ;分别用ＰＨＡ、ＨＢｃＡｇ和ＨＢｅＡｇ体外培养;ＥＬＩＳＡ法检测ＰＢＭＣ产生Ｔｈ１类细胞因子（ＩＬ－２、ＩＦＮ－γ）和Ｔｈ２类细胞因子（ＩＬ－４、ＩＬ－１０）的含量。结果 表明ＨＢＶ ＤＮＡ阳性组和阴性组相比,无论是在ＰＨＡ还是在ＨＢｃＡ     

磷甲酸钠在鸭体内对鸭乙型肝炎病毒的抑制作用

以鸭乙型肝炎病毒（ＤＨＢＶ）静脉感染雏鸭为模型,分组腹腔注射磷甲酸钠（ＰＦＡ）２５０ｍｇ、１２５ｍｇ、６２．５ｍｇ／ｋｇ及生理盐水,观察治疗后鸭血清中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ及ＤＨＢｓＡｇ的动态变化,并检测肝、肾、脾及胰中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ的分布;提取肝脏中超螺旋ＤＮＡ（ＳＣＤＮＡ）,检测ＰＦＡ对ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ复制的影响。结果表明：ＰＦＡ治疗第７天到第２１天,１２５ｍｇ和２５０ｍｇ／ｋｇ剂量组对ＤＨＢｓＡｇ有显著的抑制作用;１２５ｍｇ和２５０ｍｇ／ｋｇ剂量组治疗第１４、２１天对血清中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ有显著的抑制作用;１２５ｍｇ和２５０ｍｇ／ｋｇ剂量组治疗第２１天肝及肾中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ明显下降;２５０ｍｇ／ｋｇ剂量组治疗２１天对ＤＨＢＶ感染鸭肝细胞内ＤＨＢＶＲＣＤＮＡ、ＬＤＮＡ及ＳＣＤＮＡ的合成有明显抑制作用。可见,最大剂量２５０ｍｇ／ｋｇＰＦＡ每天２次,治疗２１天,对ＤＨＢＶ感染鸭血清中ＤＨＢｓＡｇ、血清及肝、肾中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ都有抑制作用,对脾、胰中ＤＨＢＶＤＮＡ抑制不明显。提示该药能抑制ＤＨＢＶ感染,但未能清除病毒,故停药后可出现反跳现象。     

HCV替代HBV作为慢性肝炎继续的原因

ＨＣＶ替代ＨＢＶ作为慢性肝炎继续的原因［英］／ＬｉａｗＹＦ…／／Ｇａｓｔｒｏｅｎｔｅｒｏｌｏｇ．－１９９４，１０６（４）．－１０８４～１０５３在慢性ＨＩＳＶ感染中，自发性ＨＢｓＡｇ清除是一种不常见事件。在ＨＢｓＡｇ清除后，血清ＡＳＴ和ＡＬＴ通常正常化...     

具有谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GPX）活力的抗体酶研究──单克隆抗体的制备及化学诱变

将２，４－二硝基氯苯（ＤＮＣＢ）专一地与底物谷胱甘肽（ＧＳＨ）巯基反应，合成了半抗原ＧＳＨ－Ｓ－ＤＮＰ；通过蛋白质连接技术（戊二醛法）将此半抗原偶联到牛血清白蛋白（ＢＳＡ）上，制备出全抗原。用吸收光谱测得每个ＢＳＡ分子上平均连接３３个半抗原。用全抗原免疫ＢＡＬＢ／ｃ小鼠，通过淋巴细胞杂交瘤技术，制备出抗ＧＳＨ的单克隆抗体杂交瘤细胞系４Ａ４、６Ａ６、１Ｃ８和４Ｇ３等。将其中的４Ａ４培养上清经５０％（ＮＨ４）２ＳＯ４沉淀、ＤＥＡＥ－５２纤维素离子交换柱层析和ＢｉｏｇｅｌＰ－２００凝胶过滤分离得到４Ａ４ＩｇＧ抗体，经ＳＤＳ－ＰＡＧＥ检验纯度大于９０％。４Ａ４ＩｇＧ可变区中的丝氨酸（Ｓｅｒ）经苯甲基磺酰氟（ＰＭＳＦ）活化，再用硒化氢（Ｈ２Ｓｅ）处理，则Ｓｅｒ转变成硒代半胱氨酸（ＳｅＣｙｓ），使４Ａ４ＩｇＧ引入该催化基因。化学诱变后的４Ａ４ＩｇＧ具有谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（ＧＰＸ）活性，其活力是世界上最好的ＧＰＸ模拟物ＰＺ５１的１１００倍，是游离ＳｅＣｙｓ的２．２×１０４倍，已达到天然酶活力的数量级水平。经初步应用，该抗体酶可防止自由基对心肌线粒体的损伤。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

Class II HLA in Georgia Caucasus Tbilisi Georgians and their Mediterranean ancestry: The Usko Mediterranean languages

Georgia (or Sakartvelo in its own language) is a South Caucasus Mts. country with its easternmost part is enigmatically named Iberia, like the Iberian Peninsula, which may refer to rivers “Kura” and “Ebro” or their valleys respectively. Most of their inhabitants speak Georgian which is included within Dene-Caucasian group and Usko-Mediterranean subgroup of languages. The latter includes Basque, Berber, ancient Iberian-Tartessian, Etruscan, Hittite, Minoan Lineal A and others. In the present paper, HLA class II -DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles has been studied and extended haplotypes calculated. Most frequent haplotypes are also of Mediterranean origin (i. e.: (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*13:01-DQB1*06:03, or (A*24-B*35)-DRB1*01:01-DQB1*05:01) and DA genetic distances show that closest world populations to Georgians are Mediterraneans. Georgians also show common extended haplotypes ((A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*13)-DRB1*07:01-DQB1*02:01 and (A*03-B*35)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01) with Svan people, a secluded population in North Georgia mountains. We can conclude that Georgians belong to a very old Mediterranean substratum according to both linguistics (Usko Mediterranean languages) and HLA genetics.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.