鼻窦和鼻颅底手术解剖的历史与进展

当今时代,鼻窦与鼻颅底外科手术技术不断发展和更新,这是数百年来解剖学进步带来的成果。随着科技和医学日新月异的进步,鼻窦与鼻颅底手术解剖的理论和技术还在持续发展。我们在文中回顾了鼻窦与鼻颅底解剖的历史与进展,从大体解剖、显微镜和内镜解剖、影像学与虚拟现实解剖等角度对相关内容进行综述。     

经鼻内镜颅底手术的常用路径及解剖学标志

目的:探讨鼻内镜颅底手术适应范围、常用路径及其解剖标志.方法:复习相关文献,对经鼻内镜颅底手术各种入路及相关解剖标志的研究成果加以分析、总结.结果:鼻内镜颅底手术常用入路有经鼻中隔旁入路、经中鼻道入路及经中鼻甲切除入路3种,入路涉及的重要解剖学标志有筛前动脉、筛后动脉、中鼻甲、筛窦、蝶骨翼突、蝶筛隐窝、视神经-颈内静脉隐窝及球形鞍底.结论:熟练掌握鼻内镜颅底常用路径及其解剖标志,能够提高手术质量,减少并发症的发生.     

颅底段展神经的应用解剖

目的 :为颅底外科提供展神经的显微解剖学资料。方法 :观测 15例 ( 3 0侧 )成人头颅湿标本展神经的位置、行径及重要毗邻关系。结果 :①展神经在硬脑膜入口处两侧间距 ( 19.71± 1.79)mm ;②Dorello管顶与底间最大垂直距离 ( 2 .14± 0 .70 )mm ;③展神经在海绵窦内距破裂孔硬膜环 ( 5 .69± 1.45 )mm。结论 :在颞骨岩部、海绵窦及眶上裂区手术 ,展神经必须予以辨认和保护     

神经内镜扩大经鼻入路中的几个重要解剖标志及其临床意义

目的　观察扩大经鼻手术入路中的几个重要解剖标志,为经鼻颅底外科手术入路方案的制定提供形态学依据。 方法　对10 例尸头标本进行扩大经鼻入路神经内镜解剖, 操作方法为双鼻孔入路,颅底开放范围包括后组筛窦、蝶窦及中上斜坡,外侧完整暴露两侧颈内动脉海绵窦\斜坡段。 结果　确认了筛前、筛后动脉的正常解剖位置,探明了视神经-颈内动脉隐窝(OCR)的解剖构成,内镜下观察重新对海绵窦进行解剖分区,并从经鼻内镜视角对展神经进行解剖分段。 结论　熟悉上述经鼻入路重要解剖标记,对于提高该手术入路的有效性及安全性具有重要意义。     

与颅底外科手术入路有关的应用解剖

以Ｆｒａｎｋｆｕｒｔ平面为基准，绘制测量了１００例头部标本。从颞下区、颞骨岩部前、后缘确定Ａ、Ｂ、Ｃ三条平行的定位线。Ａ与Ｂ线之间为７．１±１．２ｍｍ，Ｂ与Ｃ线之间为１１．９±１．７ｍｍ。并测量各组由外向内的深度，Ａ线为１８．５±１．８ｍｍ，Ｂ线３０．２±２．８ｍｍ，Ｃ线４２．５±３．４ｍｍ。并由浅入深测量了每条线内各结构间的距离。结果提示定位线不仅有助于各结构的定位，而且也是颅底分区的自然界线。手术应以定位线为基推选择入路的方向，由浅入深层层定位，也可在任何方位下以此为依据定出所见结构的区域或方位。     

内镜经鼻侧颅底手术相关骨性标志的研究

目的：研究与内镜经鼻入路侧颅底手术相关的骨性解剖标志,掌握颅底腹侧面骨性解剖标志间的距离,以完善内镜经鼻侧颅底手术技术.方法：利用成人干性颅骨标本51具,测量内镜经鼻侧颅底手术相关的骨性解剖标志之间的距离,并比较各测量项目左右两侧之间的差异.结果：各测量指标左右两侧对比,卵圆孔后缘-岩骨前缘左侧大于右侧,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.01）;视柱-破裂孔外侧缘右侧大于左侧,差异有统计学意义（0.01＜P＜0.05）;其它各项左右两侧差异均无统计学意义（P＞0.05）.卵圆孔后缘骨板变异很大,其中卵圆孔后方未闭合者2侧（ 1.96%）,与岩骨融合者1侧（0.98%）;颈内动脉管腹侧为骨质缺损的大裂开者1例2侧（1.96%）,颈内动脉管腹侧前下壁骨质薄、有裂隙者1侧（0.98%）.结论：颅底腹侧骨性标志的解剖观测为内镜经鼻侧颅底手术提供形态及数据信息.     

筛动脉筛窦段的鼻内窥镜手术相关解剖

目的：研究筛动脉在筛窦内的走行特点,为减少鼻内窦镜手术并发症提供解剖指导。方法：通过３０具湿性成人尸头（男１９,女１１）的解疲、观察了筛动脉在筛窦段的走行部位、方向、骨管厚度及其与筛窦气房的关系。结果（１）筛前动脉与中鼻甲基板的位置关系密切,多走行于中鼻甲基板之前的紧邻筛房顶（６６．６）及中甲基板顶（２６．７％）;筛后动脉则以位于最后筛房顶最为多见（６４．９％）;（２）筛前、后动脉骨管的下壁明显薄     

鼻内窥镜下结合鼻腔解剖手术治疗鼻腔内翻性乳头状瘤

目的　探讨鼻内窥镜下结合鼻腔解剖手术治疗鼻腔鼻窦内翻性乳头状瘤的应用价值并分析其手术治疗效果。 方法　对26例鼻腔鼻窦内翻性乳头状瘤经鼻内窥镜手术的患者进行回顾性分析,根据其病变范围,按照Krouse分期法：其中Ⅰ级5例,Ⅱ级15例,Ⅲ级6例,Ⅳ级0例。单纯鼻内窥镜手术者11例,鼻内窥镜+柯-陆氏手术者12例,鼻内窥镜+鼻侧切开+柯-陆氏手术者3例。 结果　26例术后患者随访,有3例复发,再次经鼻内窥镜手术后未见复发,其余患者均未见复发,除个别患者有轻微鼻干外,其余患者无并发症出现。 结论　对Ⅰ级内翻性乳头状瘤患者,单纯鼻内窥镜手术即能彻底切除,对Ⅱ级、Ⅲ级患者需鼻内窥镜结合柯-陆氏手术,个别还需结合鼻侧切开术,术前须对病情作出正确的评估,鼻内窥镜手术视野清晰、创伤小、对于Ⅰ、Ⅱ及Ⅲ级内翻性乳头状瘤患者可彻底切除肿瘤,降低复发率。     

鼻内窥镜下泪囊鼻腔造口术的应用解剖

目的：为鼻内窥镜下泪囊鼻腔造口术提供解剖学基础。方法：在３０侧成人头部正中矢状剖面标本上，观测了泪囊的形态、毗邻、在鼻腔外侧壁上的投影及泪囊窝内侧壁骨质厚度。以鼻小柱基部为基准，鼻腔底为平面，对泪囊进行了定位。结果：泪囊的长度为１３．３±２．２ｍｍ，内侧壁宽为６．０±１．１ｍｍ，横径为４．９±０．９ｍｍ，容积为０．３３±０．０７ｍｌ。从鼻小柱基部至泪囊下部和顶部的距离分别为３２．８±３．７ｍｍ和４３．４±４．３ｍｍ，两者与鼻腔底的夹角分别为４７．５°±３．６°和６５．６°±５．１°。结论：提出了泪囊鼻腔造口术时内窥镜进入深度和角度的安全范围，造口位置的选择及手术并发症的预防     

鼻内窥镜筛窦切除术的应用解剖

目的：鼻内窥镜筛窦切除术时常出现眶内及颅内严重并发症，本研究为此类手术提供重要解剖数据，依此避免手术并发症的出现。方法：在６０个完整成人尸体头部标本上对鼻内窥镜下行筛窦切除术的应用解剖进行了研究，通过颅正中矢状切面、水平切面，设计了１１条测线、９个测角和５项观察。结果：①前鼻棘至手术有关重要解剖结构的距离及角度约分别为：钩突中部３５ｍｍ、４９°，筛泡中部３７ｍｍ、５２°，中鼻甲基板４３ｍｍ、５８°，筛板前部５０ｍｍ、７１°；②中鼻甲前端至蝶窦口距离为３５ｍｍ，中鼻甲前端顶部附着处为筛顶与筛板的分界；③中鼻道外侧壁（上颌窦内侧壁）与纸样板在同一垂直面。结论：中鼻甲是鼻内窥镜鼻窦切除术的重要内部标志，前鼻棘是此类手术的重要外部标志     

钛网片在前颅底手术颅底重建中的美容作用

目的 探讨钛网片和带蒂颅骨膜在伴有较大颅底缺损的前颅底手术颅底重建术中的美容作用。方法 将钛网片放在折叠的具有良好血供的带蒂颅骨膜两层之间，对23例具有较大颅底缺损的患者进行颅底重建。结果 23例手术后无感染出现，无脑膜脑膨出，及局部塌陷，颅眶畸形得以矫正，容貌恢复满意，6例术后出现短时间脑脊液鼻漏，经腰穿和静脉预防性应用抗生素痊愈。结论 应用钛网片和血供良好的带蒂颅骨膜重建前颅底有很好的美容作用。     

Fossa navicularis: anatomic variation at the skull base

The fossa navicularis is a relatively rare anatomic variation of the skull base. Awareness of its existence will avoid misinterpretations of radiological images and unnecessary investigations. This study describes the appearance of the fossa navicularis, and investigates its incidence and whether it is related to pathology at the basiocciput. We studied 492 dry human skulls and 525 computer tomography (CT) images of patients. Dry skulls showing a fossa navicularis were investigated by CT scan, whereas patients identified as having a fossa navicularis were further examined with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). To document the position of the fossa more precisely, measurements were made between the fossa navicularis and certain anatomic landmarks such as the foramen ovale, the pharyngeal tubercle, the posterior border of the vomer, the foramen lacerum, the carotid canal, and the occipital condyle. Upon examination, 26 of 492 skulls (5.3%) were found to have a fossa navicularis. Twelve were <2 mm in depth and the other 14 had a depth of >/=2 mm. Of the 525 patients, 16 (3.0%) were identified as having a fossa navicularis in CT images. Evaluation of MRIs showed no soft tissue lesions in any of these patients. Comprehensive anatomic details of the fossa navicularis have not been reported in the literature. The results of this study may be useful to radiologists, anatomists, and surgeons interested in the skull base.     

Transnasal endoscopic skull base surgery in the COVID-19 era: Recommendations for increasing the safety of the method

Transnasal endoscopic skull base surgery (eSBS) has been adopted in recent years, in great part to replace the extended procedures required by external approaches. Though sometimes perceived as “minimally invasive”, eSBS still necessitates extensive manipulations within the nose/paranasal sinuses. Furthermore, exposure of susceptible cerebral structures to light and heat emanated by the telescope should be considered to comprehensively evaluate the safety of the method. While the number of studies specifically targeting eSBS safety still remains scarce, the problem has recently expanded with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which also has implications for the safety of the surgical personnel.It must be stressed that eSBS may directly expose the surgeon to potentially high volumes of virus-contaminated aerosol. Thus, the anxiety of both the patient and the surgeon must be taken into account. Consequently, safety requirements must follow the highest standards. This paper summarizes current knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 biology and the peculiarities of human immunology in respect of the host-virus relationship, taking into account the latest information concerning the SARS-CoV-2 worrisome affinity for the nervous system. Based on this information, a workflow proposal is offered for consideration. This could be useful not only for the duration of the pandemic, but also during the unpredictable timeline involving our coexistence with the virus. Recommendations include technical modifications to the operating theatre, personal protective equipment, standards of testing for SARS-CoV-2 infection, prophylactic pretreatment with interferon, anti-IL6 treatment and, last but not least, psychological support for the patient.     

Clear cell rhabdomyosarcoma of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses

This report describes two cases of alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma of the nasal cavity with unusual histological appearances mimicking clear cell carcinoma. The closely packed tumour cells were polygonal and arranged in sheets and packets. They had an appreciable amount of clear cytoplasm due to accumulation of glycogen. The diagnosis of rhabdomyosarcoma was confirmed by positive staining for desmin and myoglobin. Rhabdomyosarcoma should be included in the differential diagnosis of nasal clear cell tumours, particularly in young adults. A correct diagnosis is important, because chemotherapy is indicated even for apparently localized disease.     

Inward collapse of the nasal cavity: Perinatal consolidation of the midface and cranial base in primates

Living primates show a complex trend in reduction of nasal cavity spaces and structures due to moderate to severe constraint on interorbital breadth. Here we describe the ontogeny of the posterior end of the primate cartilaginous nasal capsule, the thimble shaped posterior nasal cupula (PNC), which surrounds the hind end of the olfactory region. We used a histologically sectioned sample of strepsirrhine primates and two non-primates (Tupaia belangeri, Rousettus leschenaulti), and histochemical and immunohistochemical methods to study the PNC in a perinatal sample. At birth, most strepsirrhines possess only fragments of PNC, and these lack a perichondrium. Fetal specimens of several species reveal a more complete PNC, but the cartilage exhibits uneven or weak reactivity to type II collagen antibodies. Moreover, there is relatively less matrix than in the septal cartilage, resulting in clustering of chondrocytes, some of which are in direct contact with adjacent connective tissues. In one primate (Varecia spp.) and both non-primates, the PNC has a perichondrium at birth. In older, infant Varecia and Rousettus, the perichondrium of the PNC is absent, and PNC fragmentation at its posterior pole has occurred in the former. Loss of the perichondrium for the PNC appears to precede resorption of the posterior end of the nasal capsule. These results suggest that the consolidation of the basicranial and facial skeletons happens ontogenetically earlier in primates than other mammals. We hypothesize that early loss of cartilage at the sphenoethmoidal articulation limits chondral mechanisms for nasal complexity, such as interstitial expansion or endochondral ossification.     

侧颅底手术中乙状窦应用解剖学研究

目的　探讨侧颅底手术中乙状窦相关解剖标志的位置,为进一步提高侧颅底手术安全性提供解剖学基础。 方法　选取成人头颅标本40个,采用耳后切口行标准乳突根治术。充分暴露颅中窝及颅后窝硬脑膜、外半规管、面神经膝部、乙状窦、颈静脉球、乳突、茎乳孔、二腹肌嵴、外耳道后壁等重要解剖结构。使用双脚规测径器或电子数显游标卡尺分别测量相关解剖结构之间的距离。 结果　乙状窦前缘至外耳道后壁的距离是(1.41±0.32)cm,乙状窦外侧壁至乳突外侧壁的距离是(1.02±0.38)cm,面神经乳突段的长度是(1.28±0.13)cm,面神经乳突段起点（即面神经膝部）到乙状窦的距离是(0.56±0.20)cm,面神经乳突段终点（即茎乳孔部）到乙状窦的距离是(0.62±0.22)cm,二腹肌嵴至乙状窦的距离是(0.52±0.18)　cm,茎乳孔至乙状窦的距离是(1.02±0.24)cm。 结论　面神经乳突段起点和终点至乙状窦的距离及乙状窦至二腹肌嵴和茎乳孔之间的距离均呈正相关;乙状沟的深浅、宽窄及骨壁的厚薄因乳突气化程度不同而各异。     

Adenocarcinomas of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: a clinicopathological and immunohistochemical study of 14 cases

Aims : To evaluate the clinicopathological profile of 14 cases of nasal and paranasal sinusal adenocarcinoma, and to assess the usefulness of immunohistochemistry in the differential diagnosis of primary and metastatic intestinal-type adenocarcinoma.
Methods and results : Fourteen cases of nasal and paranasal adenocarcinoma, treated at IPOFG, Lisbon, between 1976 and 2002, were studied. Clinical records were reviewed and expression of cytokeratin (CK)7 and CK20 and of neuroendocrine markers was evaluated. The male : female ratio was 3 : 1, and the mean age of the patients was 65.3 years. Ten cases occurred in the paranasal sinuses. There was a history of professional exposure to dust in three patients. Twelve cases were high-grade intestinal type adenocarcinomas (ITAC) and two were low-grade. CK7 was present in 2/9 ITAC cases and CK20 in 8/9 ITAC and in cases of mixed and mucinous histology. All high-grade cases showed neuroendocrine differentiation. Seven of the 12 patients with high-grade adenocarcinoma died of the disease, with a mean follow-up of 47.4 months.
Conclusions : Nasal and paranasal adenocarcinoma mostly occurs in men in the 7th decade. ITAC is the most frequent histological type. The pattern of CK7/CK20 was not useful in the distinction between primary and metastatic intestinal adenocarcinoma. However, in the former, neuroendocrine differentiation proved to be a valuable tool in that distinction.     

Trautmann's triangle anatomy with application to posterior transpetrosal and other related skull base procedures

Trautmann's triangle (TT) faces the cerebellopontine angle and is exposed during posterior transpetrosal approaches. However, reports on the morphometric analysis of this structure are lacking in the literature. The goal was to better understand this important operative corridor. TT was exposed from an external approach (transmastoid) in ten cadavers (20 sides) and from an internal approach on 20 dry adult temporal bones. Measurements included calculation of the area of TT and the distance of the endolymphatic sac from the anterior border of the sigmoid sinus. The area range of TT was 45–210 mm² (mean 151 mm²; SD 37 mm²). Three types of triangles were identified based on area. Type I triangles had areas less than 75 mm², Type II areas were 75–149 mm², and Type III areas were 150 mm² and greater. These types were observed in 37.5%, 35%, and 27.5% of sides, respectively. The distance from the jugular bulb's anterior border to the posterior border of the posterior semicircular canal ranged from 6 to 11 mm (mean 8.5 mm). The endolymphatic sac was located in the inferior portion of TT and traveled anterior to the sigmoid sinus. The horizontal distance from the anterior edge of the sigmoid sinus to the posterior edge of the endolymphatic sac ranged from 0 to 13.5 mm (mean 9 mm). Additional anatomic knowledge regarding TT may improve neurosurgical procedures in this region by avoiding intrusion into the endolymphatic sac and sigmoid sinus. Clin. Anat. 27:994–998, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.