Beclin 1与mTOR对心肌缺血/再灌注损伤中自噬的交互调控机制

自噬是一个进化上高度保守的受损或功能障碍的蛋白质聚集体或细胞器降解的过程。在心肌缺血/再灌注(I/R)过程中,可以通过多种因素诱导细胞的自噬活动,而且越来越多的证据表明,自噬在心肌缺血/再灌注损伤(MIRI)中可能起“双刃剑”的作用,适度自噬可促进细胞存活;而不适当的激活自噬可能会加速细胞死亡。Beclin 1介导的自噬/凋亡互反馈信号通路和哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)介导的自噬与mTOR的互反馈信号通路,是两条经典的自噬激活信号途径,也可能是调控自噬“双刃剑”转向促进细胞存活的重要调控机制。本文将重点综述上述两条信号通路对自噬的交互式调控作用。速发挥作用。因此,Z盘部位实质上成为心肌细胞中的信号转导中心。     

Programmed cell death in cardiac myocytes: strategies to maximize post-ischemic salvage

The most common cause of systolic dysfunction in the United States is prior ischemic injury. As the basic functional unit of the myocardium, the cardiac myocyte is the ultimate target of both the pathogenesis and possible therapies in this paradigm. Maintaining adequate numbers of these terminally differentiated units in the myocardium has been the focus of all therapies in ischemic syndromes, including reperfusion strategies. Programmed cell death, in the forms of apoptosis, necrosis and possibly, autophagic cell death are the final arbiters of myocyte numbers following myocardial infarction. This review will focus on the evidence for cell death in the development of heart failure following myocardial infarction, a brief review of the relevant pathways and the targets for development of future therapies     

Recycle or die: the role of autophagy in cardioprotection

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular process responsible for the degradation of long-lived proteins and organelles. Autophagy occurs at low levels under normal conditions, but is upregulated in response to stress such as nutrient deprivation, hypoxia, mitochondrial dysfunction, and infection. Upregulation of autophagy may be beneficial to the cell by recycling of proteins to generate free amino acids and fatty acids needed to maintain energy production, by removing damaged organelles, and by preventing accumulation of protein aggregates. In contrast, there is evidence that enhanced autophagy can contribute to cell death, possibly through excessive self-digestion. In the heart, autophagy has an essential role for maintaining cellular homeostasis under normal conditions and increased autophagy can be seen in conditions of starvation, ischemia/reperfusion, and heart failure. However, the functional significance of autophagy in heart disease is unclear and controversial. Here, we review the literature and discuss the evidence that autophagy can have both beneficial and detrimental roles in the myocardium depending on the level of autophagy, and discuss potential mechanisms by which autophagy provides protection in cells.     

The natural compounds piperovatine and piperlonguminine induce autophagic cell death on Trypanosoma cruzi

The currently available treatments for Chagas disease show limited therapeutic potential and are associated with serious side effects. Our group has been attempting to find alternative drugs isolated from natural products as a potential source of pharmacological agents against Trypanosoma cruzi. Here, we demonstrate the antitrypanosomal activity of the amides piperovatine and piperlonguminine isolated from Piper ovatum against epimastigotes and intracellular amastigotes. We also investigated the mechanisms of action of these compounds on extracellular amastigote and epimastigote forms of T. cruzi. These amides showed low toxicity to LLCMK₂ mammalian cells. By using transmission and scanning electron microscopy, we observed that the compounds caused severe alterations in T. cruzi. These alterations were mainly located in plasma membrane and mitochondria. Furthermore, the study of treated parasites labeled with Rh123, PI and MDC corroborate with our TEM data. These mitochondrial dysfunctions induced by the amides might trigger biochemical alterations that lead to cell death. Altogether, our data evidence a possible autophagic process.     

Apoptosis is a major mode of cell death caused by ischaemia and ischaemia/reperfusion injury to the rat intestinal epithelium

Background and aims—Injuries caused by ischaemiaand ischaemia/reperfusion in the small intestine have been widelyaccepted as resulting in necrosis. The aim of this study was toascertain whether apoptosis also occurs.
Methods—Intestinal epithelium from rats subjectedto ischaemia (15-90 minutes) and ischaemia/reperfusion (15 minutesischaemia followed by 15-75 minutes of reperfusion) was studied usinghistological, immunohistochemical, and molecular biological methods aswell as FACS.
Results—Mucosal injury was induced by bothischaemia and ischaemia/reperfusion. Detachment of epithelial cellsfrom the villous stroma was an early morphological changeindicating mucosal injury. More than 80% of the detached cellsexhibited characteristic morphological features of apoptosis(condensation of chromatin and nuclear fragmentation). The remainderdemonstrated necrotic features. The apoptotic cells eventuallyunderwent spontaneous degeneration with membrane rupture, a processmorphologically identical to necrosis. DNA fragmentation was alsoconfirmed by immunohistochemical methods and agarose gel electrophoresis.
Conclusion—Apoptosis is a major mode of cell deathin the destruction of rat small intestinal epithelial cells induced by ischaemia and ischaemia/reperfusion injury. Disruption of epithelial cell-matrix interactions ("anoikis") may play an important part ininduction of apoptosis in detached enterocytes.

Keywords:ischaemia; reperfusion; apoptosis; necrosis; enterocyte; rat

     

FoxO1变化对糖尿病小鼠心肌缺血/再灌注损伤的影响

目的:观察心肌中插头转录因子O1（FoxO1）在糖尿病（DM）小鼠心肌中表达量变化及对小鼠心肌缺血/再灌注（I/R）损伤的影响。方法: 将90只健康雄性Swiss小鼠随机分为5组:假手术（Sham）组、I/R组、DM+Sham组、DM+I/R组及DM+FoxO1SiRNA+I/R组,每组18只。采用高糖高脂饮食加链脲菌素(Streptozocin,STZ)腹腔注射诱导建立DM小鼠模型。采用FoxO1SiRNA心肌点注射下调心肌FoxO1表达。心肌I/R损伤模型的建立,采用结扎心脏冠状动脉左前降支30 min后再灌注方案实施。心肌再灌注3 h后,用原位缺口末端标法(TUNEL)检测心肌细胞凋亡。用ELISA法检测心肌中 Caspase-3的活性。用Western blot法检测心肌中FoxO1的表达量。心肌再灌注24 h后,用2,3,5-三苯基氯化四氮唑（TTC）染色法检测心肌梗死（MI）的面积。结果: 与Sham组比较,DM+Sham组心肌中FoxO1的表达量明显增高（P<0.01）。与I/R组比,DM+I/R组MI的面积增大（P<0.05）,心肌细胞凋亡数量及Caspase-3活性明显增加（P<0.01）。与DM+I/R组相比,DM+FoxO1SiRNA+I/R组心肌FoxO1的表达量下调（P<0.05）,MI面积及Caspase-3的活性减小（P<0.05）,心肌细胞凋亡数量减少（P<0.01）。结论: DM小鼠心肌中FoxO1表达量的增加可加重心肌I/R损伤;而下调心肌中FoxO1的表达量后,心肌I/R损伤减轻。     

Protective effect of lipopolysaccharide preconditioning in hepatic ischaemia reperfusion injury

Background

Preconditioning using lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligand, has been demonstrated to reduce ischaemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) in some organs, but its effect in the liver has not been elucidated. We examined the liver protective mechanism and correlated signalling pathway of LPS preconditioning in mice.

Methods

BALB/c and TLR4 mutant mice underwent 90 min of 70% hepatic ischaemia. Lipopolysaccharide (100 µg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally 20 h or 30 min before ischaemia. Liver damage after reperfusion was examined using serum samples and liver specimens. To analyse the mechanism of preconditioning in detail, phosphorylation of representative signalling mediators to nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation, Akt and interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 (IRAK-1), and expression of a negative feedback inhibitor, suppressor of cytokine signalling-1 (SOCS-1), were evaluated by Western blotting.

Results

Pretreatment with LPS only 20 h before ischaemia elicited a preconditioning effect; however, preconditioning was absent in TLR4 mutant mice. Lipopolysaccharide significantly decreased serum alanine aminotransferase, tumour necrosis factor-α, hepatocyte necrosis and NF-κB activity after reperfusion. Phosphorylated IRAK-1 was suppressed by LPS, whereas no difference was observed in phosphorylated Akt. Pre-ischaemic LPS provided early induction of SOCS-1.

Discussion

Late-phase LPS preconditioning provided liver protection against IRI through the downregulation of the TLR4 cascade derived from early induction of SOCS-1 during ischaemia/reperfusion.     

Systems approaches to preventing transplanted cell death in cardiac repair

Stem cell transplantation may repair the injured heart, but tissue regeneration is limited by death of transplanted cells. Most cell death occurs in the first few days post-transplantation, likely from a combination of ischemia, anoikis and inflammation. Interventions known to enhance transplanted cell survival include heat shock, over-expressing anti-apoptotic proteins, free radical scavengers, anti-inflammatory therapy and co-delivery of extracellular matrix molecules. Combinatorial use of such interventions markedly enhances graft cell survival, but death still remains a significant problem. We review these challenges to cardiac cell transplantation and present an approach to systematically address them.Most anti-death studies use histology to assess engraftment, which is time- and labor-intensive. To increase throughput, we developed two biochemical approaches to follow graft viability in the mouse heart. The first relies on LacZ enzymatic activity to track genetically modified cells, and the second quantifies human genomic DNA content using repetitive Alu sequences. Both show linear relationships between input cell number and biochemical signal, but require correction for the time lag between cell death and loss of signal. Once optimized, they permit detection of as few as 1 graft cell in 40,000 host cells. Pro-survival effects measured biochemically at three days predict long-term histological engraftment benefits. These methods permitted identification of carbamylated erythropoietin (CEPO) as a pro-survival factor for human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte grafts. CEPO's effects were additive to heat shock, implying independent survival pathways. This system should permit combinatorial approaches to enhance graft viability in a fraction of the time required for conventional histology.     

MicroRNA-21 protects against the H2O2-induced injury on cardiac myocytes via its target gene PDCD4

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced cardiac cell injury via expression changes of multiple genes plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of numerous heart diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) comprise a novel class of endogenous, small, noncoding RNAs that negatively regulate about 30% of the genes in a cell via degradation or translational inhibition of their target mRNAs. Currently, the effects of ROS on miRNA expression and the roles of miRNAs in ROS-mediated injury on cardiac myocytes are uncertain. Using quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), we demonstrated that microRNA-21 (miR-21) was upregulated in cardiac myocytes after treatment with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). To determine the potential roles of miRNAs in H₂O₂-mediated gene regulation and cellular injury, miR-21 expression was downregulated by miR-21 inhibitor and upregulated by pre-miR-21. H₂O₂-induced cardiac cell death and apoptosis were increased by miR-21 inhibitor and was decreased by pre-miR-21. Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) that was regulated by miR-21 and was a direct target of miR-21 in cardiac myocytes. Pre-miR-21-mediated protective effect on cardiac myocyte injury was inhibited in H₂O₂-treated cardiac cells via adenovirus-mediated overexpression of PDCD4 without miR-21 binding site. Moreover, Activator protein 1 (AP-1) was a downstream signaling molecule of PDCD4 that was involved in miR-21-mediated effect on cardiac myocytes. The results suggest that miR-21 is sensitive to H₂O₂ stimulation. miR-21 participates in H₂O₂-mediated gene regulation and functional modulation in cardiac myocytes. miR-21 might play an essential role in heart diseases related to ROS such as cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     

MicroRNA-15a/b are up-regulated in response to myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury

Objective Several studies have indicated that miR-15a, miR-15b and miR-16 may be the important regulators of apoptosis. Since attenuate apoptosis could protect myocardium and reduce infarction size, the present study was aimed to find out whether these miRNAs participate in regulating myocardial ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury. Methods Apoptosis in mice hearts subjected to I/R was detected by TUNEL assay in vivo, while flow cytometry analysis followed by Annexin V/PI double stain in vitro was used to detect apoptosis in cultured cardiomyocytes which were subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). Taqman real-time quantitative PCR was used to confirm whether miR-15a/15b/16 were involved in the regulation of cardiac I/R and H/R. Results Compared to those of the controls, I/R or H/R induced apoptosis of cardiomyocytes was significantly increased both in vivo (24.4% ± 9.4% vs. 2.2% ± 1.9%, P < 0.01, n = 5) and in vitro (14.12% ± 0.92% vs. 2.22% ± 0.08%). The expression of miR-15a and miR-15b, but not miR-16, was increased in the mice I/R model, and the results were consistent in the H/R model. Conclusions Our data indicate miR-15 and miR-15b are up-regulated in response to cardiac I/R injury, therefore, down-regulation of miR-15a/b may be a promising strategy to reduce myocardial apoptosis induced by cardiac I/R injury.     

白藜芦醇对糖尿病大鼠心脏缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的探讨白藜芦醇(RSV)对糖尿病大鼠心肌缺血再灌注(MI/R)损伤的保护作用及其机制。方法通过腹腔注射链脲佐菌素诱导2型糖尿病大鼠模型。2周后糖尿病大鼠随机分为假手术(Sham)组、MI/R组和白藜芦醇(RSV)组。通过结扎左冠状动脉前降支诱导MI/R损伤模型。测定各组大鼠乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)、肌酸激酶(CK)、心肌肌钙蛋白I(cTnI)、心肌梗死面积、心脏收缩和舒张功能;TUNEL法检测心肌细胞凋亡指数;Western blot检测沉默信息调节因子1(SIRT1)、p53、乙酰化p53(Acetyl-p53)、Bcl-2、Bax以及细胞浆和线粒体细胞色素C(Cyt C)和凋亡诱导因子(AIF)的表达;HE染色检测心肌损伤评分。结果与Sham组相比,MI/R组心肌梗死面积、心肌损伤评分、心肌LDH、CK、cTnI、Acetyl-p53、Bax、细胞浆Cyt C和AIF表达以及心肌细胞凋亡指数均明显增加,而心脏收缩和舒张功能明显降低,Bcl-2和SIRT1表达以及线粒体Cyt C和AIF表达明显减少。与MI/R组相比,RSV组心肌梗死面积、心肌损伤评分、心肌LDH、CK、cTnI、Acetyl-p53、Bax、细胞浆Cyt C和AIF表达以及心肌细胞凋亡指数均明显降低,而心脏收缩和舒张功能明显改善,Bcl-2和SIRT1表达以及线粒体Cyt C和AIF表达明显增加。3组之间p53表达无差异。结论白藜芦醇可通过抗凋亡作用减轻糖尿病大鼠MI/R损伤,其作用机制与SIRT1/p53信号通路相关。     

The role of cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1 in neutrophil-mediated remote lung injury after intestinal ischaemia/reperfusion in rats

OBJECTIVE: Remote lung injury is induced by ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) of the gastrointestinal tract and the liver following hypovolaemic shock. In the present study, the role of cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC), a member of the interleukin (IL)-8 family, in neutrophil-mediated remote lung injury following intestinal I/R was investigated in anaesthetized rats. METHODOLOGY: The I/R group was subjected to 60 min of occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery with laparotomy, followed by 240 min of intestinal reperfusion. The sham-operated (sham) group was subjected to the same procedures with the exception of intestinal I/R. RESULTS: In the I/R group, the permeability index of the lung, the neutrophil count in pulmonary vascular lavage fluid and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), lung myeloperoxidase activity and neutrophil oxidative production were all significantly greater than those in the sham group. Cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1 levels in blood and BALF were significantly increased at 240 min after intestinal reperfusion. There was a significant relationship between neutrophils in BALF and CINC-1 level in BALE CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that intestinal reperfusion was associated with activation and accumulation of neutrophils in the lung and resulted in remote lung injury with increased microvascular permeability. Thus, CINC-1 in BALF may induce neutrophil migration from the pulmonary vessels to the interstitium and alveolar spaces in remote lung injury after intestinal I/R.     

禁食通过HSF1保护肝脏缺血再灌注损伤

目的探讨短期禁食对肝脏缺血再灌注损伤的影响及和HSF1的关系。方法小鼠随机分为两大组8小组,第一大组为假手术组,再进一步分为4个小组:A组HSF1Alb-小鼠正常饮食,B组HSF1Alb-小鼠禁食16 h,C组HSF1Alb+小鼠正常饮食,D组HSF1Alb+小鼠禁食16 h。对照组只进行开关腹和游离左外叶不进行阻断和开放左外叶血流;第二大组为缺血再灌注组,进一步分为4个小组:E组HSF1Alb-小鼠正常饮食,F组HSF1Alb-小鼠禁食16 h,G组HSF1Alb+小鼠正常饮食,H组HSF1Alb+小鼠禁食16 h。缺血再灌注组进行小鼠左外叶30%的缺血60 min再灌注6 h实验。检测各组小鼠血清ALT、AST。通过比较各组血清转氨酶的水平以及评价肝组织病理损伤的程度,来判断短期禁食及HSF1对小鼠缺血再灌注损伤的影响。结果假手术组禁食和不禁食对血清转氨酶没有明显差别,缺血再灌注组中,HSF1Alb-小鼠禁食组的转氨酶明显低于正常饮食组,但在HSF1Alb+小鼠看不到这一明显的保护作用;HSF1Alb-小鼠禁食组的肝组织损伤明显减轻。结论禁食能明显减轻肝脏缺血再灌注损伤,禁食的肝脏缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用在HSF1-/-小鼠被消除。     

Survivin: A novel player in insulin cardioprotection against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury

Insulin inhibits ischemia/reperfusion-induced myocardial apoptosis through the activation of a survival signaling cascade including the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway. However, the down-stream mechanism of PI3K remains elusive. This study is aimed at investigating whether survivin (SVV) plays a role in the insulin-induced anti-apoptotic effect in the ischemic/reperfused (I/R) hearts, and if so, further determining the signaling mechanism involved. Isolated adult rat hearts were subjected to 30 min regional ischemia followed by reperfusion with or without insulin (10^− 7 mol/L) at the onset of reperfusion. Reperfusion with insulin inhibited myocardial apoptosis and reduced infarct size, along with significantly up-regulated myocardial SVV expression (5.9 ± 0.3 Group MI/R + Ins vs. 2.1 ± 0.1 Group MI/R, p < 0.05) and increased phosphorylations of mTOR and p70S6K compared with I/R group, which was blocked by pretreatment of PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Rapamycin, a specific mTOR inhibitor, did not alter insulin-induced Akt phosphorylation but significantly inhibited SVV expression (from 6.1 ± 0.3 to 3.0 ± 0.15, p < 0.05). Moreover, rapamycin blunted insulin-induced anti-apoptosis in the I/R hearts (8.1 ± 0.4% vs. 16.5 ± 1.8%, p < 0.05). To further ascertain the role of SVV in insulin-induced cardioprotection, cardiomyocytes were transfected with adenovirus encoding SVV (gain-of-function) or siRNA targeting SVV (loss-of-function). Overexpression of SVV decreased I/R-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis in vitro, while siRNA targeting SVV significantly blunted the anti-apoptotic effect of insulin. Taken together, these results suggest a novel role of PI3K/Akt/mTOR/SVV signaling in the cardioprotective effect of insulin.     

Protective effects of the urocortin homologues stresscopin (SCP) and stresscopin-related peptide (SRP) against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury in rat neonatal cardiomyocytes

Urocortin (UCN), a member of the Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF) family of peptides is a well described cardioprotective agent. UCN is able to bind to two types of G-protein coupled receptors: CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) and CRF receptor type 2 (CRFR2), whereas, two homologues of UCN, stresscopin (SCP) or also known as urocortin III (UCNIII) and stresscopin related peptide (SRP), or urocortin II (UCNII), bind exclusively and with high affinity to CRFR2, we hypothesised that they will exhibit more pronounced cardioprotective effects than UCN.We show for the first time that SCP is expressed in rat cardiomyocytes and that the levels of SRP and SCP are increased by hypoxic stress. All three peptides have potent cardioprotective effects in cells exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation. When used at 10(-8) M they increased the amount of live cells by 25% when added prior to hypoxia, and by 20% when UCN and SCP were added at the onset of reoxygenation. In addition, the peptides are equally are more potent antiapoptotic factors than UCN. The antiapoptotic effects of SCP were more pronounced than SRP and UCN at a concentration of 10(-10) M. Furthermore, SCP and SRP protect cardiomyocytes better than UCN at concentrations up to and including 10(-10) M and reduced the amount of TUNEL positive cells almost by half at concentrations of 10(-12) to 10(-10) M. More importantly, we demonstrate that SCP and SRP are able to protect cardiomyocytes even if they are administered after the hypoxic insult and prior to reoxygenation. In this case SCP was more potent than UCN and SRP at 10(-12) M and both SCP and SRP exhibited higher protection at 10(-8) M compared to UCN.Cardioprotection of cardiomyocytes by 10(-8) M of peptides was abolished when treated with 50 microM LY294002 or 100 microM PD98059, but not by 10 microM SB203580 prior to the hypoxic insult. Transfection of dominant negative Akt and MEK1 also blocked protection by the peptides, whereas dominant negative MEKK6 had no effects, demonstrating that SCP and SRP, like UCN, require activation of p42/44 Mitogen activated protein kinase and Akt/Protein Kinase B in order to produce their cardioprotective effects. In addition, we showed that SCP and UCN are potent activators of the p42/44 MAPK pathway, with SRP able to induce phosphorylation of p42/44 MAPK as well, albeit not as pronounced.