Chronic Pain: Reducing Costs Through Early Implementation of Adherence Testing and Recognition of Opioid Misuse

Abstract

Objective: To review the literature on costs associated with chronic pain therapy and to identify key contributing factors. Also, to assess the potential cost-saving benefits of monitoring pain treatment adherence using urine drug tests (UDTs), emphasizing their use in opioid therapy. Results: Reduced productivity, compensation costs, and treatment of comorbid conditions related to chronic pain contribute to the substantial financial burden of chronic pain management in the United States. The growing use of opioids for chronic pain increases the risk for drug nonadherence and associated drug abuse, potential addiction, and aberrant drug-related behaviors (ADRBs). Treatment of drug abuse increases health care costs; opioid abusers are 25 times more likely to require hospitalization than nonopioid abusers. Early detection of patient nonadherence using UDTs could significantly reduce costs of chronic pain therapy by allowing the physician to identify and treat patients' ADRBs related to controlled substances and drug addiction and abuse problems. Adherence in chronic pain may be determined by point-of-care (POC) tests, and more sensitive laboratory urine tests employing gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with high-performance liquid chromatography tests (LUTs). Cost-benefit studies suggest that the cost of LUTs to optimize adherence may reduce costs associated with nonadherence, such as inpatient clinical care and patient self-release. Current estimates indicate that appropriate use of LUTs could produce decreases up to 14.8-fold in the cost of chronic pain therapy. Conclusions: The cost benefits of UDTs can only be fully realized if physicians know how to define and detect various types of drug abuse, addiction, and diversion. Physicians should be educated on the proper implementation of POC tests and LUTs, and interpretation of adherence data. Early monitoring of drug adherence using POC tests and follow-up LUTs may provide substantial cost savings associated with health care issues incurred in nonadherent chronic pain patients, especially those taking opioid therapy.     

Perioperative and Intraoperative Pain and Anesthetic Care of the Chronic Pain and Cancer Pain Patient Receiving Chronic Opioid Therapy

Abstract:   The expanding role of the anesthesiologist as a "perioperative physician" places ever-increasing demands upon his or her clinical skills and knowledge. One area of growing concern for the anesthesiologist involves the perioperative assessment and management of the opioid-tolerant chronic pain patient. Opioids occupy a position of unsurpassed clinical utility for the treatment of many types of painful conditions. Coupled with noticeable shifts in physician attitudes that have occurred in recent years regarding the use of opioids for the treatment of benign and malignancy-related pain, many more patients are presenting for surgical procedures who are opioid tolerant. It is important therefore that the practicing anesthesiologist become familiar with the currently available opioid formulations, including drug interactions and side effects, in order to better plan the patient's perioperative anesthetic needs and management. Unfortunately, there is a lack of scientifically rigorous studies in this important area, and most of the information must be derived from anecdotal reports and personal experience of anesthesiologists working in this field. In this review, we shall discuss some aspects of current chronic pain management, the newer forms of opioid administration which may be unfamiliar to the anesthesiologist, as well as clinical aspects of opioid use and tolerance including the impact it may have on perioperative anesthetic management.     

Postoperative Pain Trajectories in Chronic Pain Patients Undergoing Surgery: The Effects of Chronic Opioid Pharmacotherapy on Acute Pain

For 2 weeks following surgery, 55 patients with preexisting chronic pain (CP) reported daily postoperative pain with movement and at rest. Of these, 30 CP patients used opioid pharmacotherapy for CP management and 25 did not. We modeled pain resolution in each patient using a linear fit so that each patient yielded 2 scores for each pain rating: 1) an intercept, or initial level of pain, immediately after surgery; and 2) a slope, or rate of pain resolution. The patients not using opioid pharmacotherapy had a mean pain with movement intercept of 5.4 and a slope of −.20, while the patients using opioid pharmacotherapy had a significantly higher mean intercept of 7.68 (P = .001) and a slope of −.21, sustaining higher pain levels over days. The opioid pharmacotherapy patients had the same rate of pain resolution as the other CP patients, and both groups resolved their pain more slowly than normal surgery patients. Preexisting CP may predispose a patient undergoing surgery to a slower rate of postoperative pain resolution. Chronic pain patients who use opioids share this predisposition but in addition, they are at risk for markedly higher postoperative pain across the entire pain resolution trajectory.

Perspective

This is an observational rather than a randomized controlled study, and as such is less definitive. Nonetheless, these findings are consistent with those of animal studies showing that prolonged exposure to opioids can produce opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Patients with opioid pharmacotherapy for chronic pain who undergo surgery merit special attention for acute pain management.     

Methadone Prescribing Caveats for Chronic Pain and Opioid Use Disorder

Methadone is an opioid agonist with unique pharmacologic and pharmacokinetic properties to consider when prescribing. Similar to other opioids, methadone is a Schedule II controlled substance; however, its indication for opioid use disorder includes additional federal regulations. Methadone has several serious boxed warnings that require providers to closely evaluate patient risk factors and perform a thorough assessment. Providers must also take into consideration all possible drug interactions before prescribing methadone; the patient could be placed at risk if not considered. Involving the patient in the decision to prescribe methadone will assist in ensuring a full history has been gathered.     

Alcohol and Opioid Use in Chronic Pain: A Cross-Sectional Examination of Differences in Functioning Based on Misuse Status

Opioid misuse is regularly associated with disrupted functioning in those with chronic pain. Less work has examined whether alcohol misuse may also interfere with functioning. This study examined frequency of opioid and alcohol misuse in 131 individuals (61.1% female) prescribed opioids for the treatment of chronic pain. Participants completed an anonymous survey online, consisting of measures of pain, functioning, and opioid and alcohol misuse. Cut scores were used to categorize individuals according to substance misuse status. Individuals were categorized as follows: 35.9% (n?=?47) were not misusing either opioids or alcohol, 22.9% (n?=?30) were misusing both opioids and alcohol, 38.2% (n = 50) were misusing opioids alone, and only 3.0% (n?=?4) were misusing alcohol alone. A multivariate analysis of variance was performed to examine differences in pain and functioning between groups (after excluding individuals in the alcohol misuse group due to the small sample size). Group comparisons indicated that individuals who were not misusing either substance were less disabled and distressed in comparison to those who were misusing opioids alone or both opioids and alcohol. No differences were indicated between the latter 2 groups. Overall, the observed frequency of opioid misuse was somewhat higher in comparison to previous work (approximately 1 out of every 3 participants), and misuse of both alcohol and opioids was common (approximately 1 out of every 5 participants). While these data are preliminary, they do suggest that issues of substance misuse in those with chronic pain extends beyond opioids alone.

Associations Between Pain Appraisals and Pain Outcomes: Meta-Analyses of Laboratory Pain and Chronic Pain Literatures

In this research, meta-analyses were performed to evaluate associations between primary appraisals of pain as a source of threat and/or challenge and responses to 1) noxious laboratory stimuli and 2) chronic noncancer pain. Twenty-two laboratory pain studies comprising 2,031 participants and 59 chronic pain studies based on 9,135 patients were identified for analysis. For laboratory pain, elevated threat appraisals were linked to overall increases in reported pain, reduced pain tolerance, and high levels of passive coping. Method of measuring appraisal as well as type and duration of noxious stimulation moderated some of these associations. Challenge appraisals were related to more pain tolerance and less passive coping but not pain intensity. For chronic pain studies, threat appraisals had positive overall correlations with pain intensity, impairment, affective distress, and passive coping but were negatively related to active coping. The pattern of associations between challenge appraisals and outcomes was largely complementary. Appraisal scale used and gender were consistent moderators of appraisal-outcome relations in chronic pain samples. In sum, appraisals of pain as a source of potential damage or opportunity have robust associations with responses to acute laboratory pain and ongoing chronic pain.PerspectiveMeta-analyses evaluated associations between primary appraisals and responses to laboratory pain and chronic pain. Significant effect sizes for most outcomes suggest that appraisals of pain as a source of threat and challenge have important implications for functioning in response to pain.     

Variable Use of Opioid Pharmacotherapy for Chronic Noncancer Pain in Europe: Causes and Consequences

ABSTRACT.?

According to the 2005 Pain in Europe Survey, the use of opioids to treat patients with chronic noncancer pain varies considerably among different countries in Europe. Undertreatment of chronic pain is common. This review examines the possible causes and consequences of limiting opioid availability to these patients. The causes of inadequate opioid use include medical, ethical, and cultural factors that influence prescribing decisions; legislative and health care system controls that serve to restrict the use of opioids for long-term treatment of non–cancer-related pain conditions; and poor treatment acceptance by patients. The validity of these restrictions is discussed in relation to the need to protect patients and society from harm due to adverse events, and the potential for misuse and abuse with prescribed opioids. This is balanced against the therapeutic goal of providing the best available pain-relieving treatment and to avoid the consequences of unnecessary suffering in patients with chronic noncancer pain.     

Chronic Opioid Pain Management for Chronic Kidney Disease

Questions from patients about pain conditions, pain treatment, and responses from authors are presented to help educate patients and make them effective self-advocates. The topics addressed in this issue are renal or kidney failure and chronic pain management with opioids, morphine, and oxycodone effect in the body over a period of time. This includes process of absorption, distribution, localization in tissues, biotransformation and excretion in chronic kidney disease, expected side effects and recommendations.     

The Impact of Adolescent Chronic Pain on Functioning: Disentangling the Complex Role of Anxiety

A number of adolescents with chronic pain have clinically significant disability across physical, social, and academic activities, and pain severity only explains a portion of the variance in functioning. Thus, it is important to identify therapeutic options to improve adolescents' functioning. In contrast to studies with adults with chronic pain, research in pediatric pain has not consistently found anxiety to be a good predictor of pain-related disability. The present study evaluated pain, anxiety, and functioning in 222 adolescents with chronic pain. Results indicated that pain was consistently and linearly related to disability across measures of physical and social functioning, school attendance, and physician visits. The relation between anxiety and functioning was complex; increased anxiety was related to poorer physical and social functioning and was related to fewer physician visits, although it was not associated with school attendance. Additional analyses revealed that anxiety serves to moderate the relation between pain and functioning. Specifically, at high anxiety, pain was not related to functioning, but at low anxiety, pain consistently predicted disability. In other words, highly anxious adolescents were functioning poorly regardless of the level of pain. The moderating role of anxiety highlights a number of research and clinical possibilities to explore with adolescents with chronic pain-related disability.