血栓弹力图对产科出血及输血的指导意义

产科出血一直是导致孕产妇死亡的主要原因。血栓弹力图(thrombelastography, TEG)是反应血液凝固动态变化的指标,能够评价凝血功能,弥补常规检查不能反映纤溶系统和血小板功能的缺陷。TEG可以实现对产科出血进行快速、准确、动态、直观的监测,帮助预防严重的产科出血。TEG为临床治疗提供直观依据的同时,也为产科输血治疗提供依据和指导,减少并发症的发生,避免血制品滥用。     

Are women who are Jehovah's Witnesses at risk of maternal death?

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the rates of obstetric hemorrhage and maternal mortality in women who are Jehovah's Witnesses and to evaluate a protocol that uses erythropoietin to optimize the red blood cell mass before delivery. STUDY DESIGN: Obstetric outcomes were described for all of the women who were Jehovah's Witnesses and who delivered at Mount Sinai Medical Center during an 11-year period. The risk of maternal death was compared with our general obstetric population during this interval. RESULTS: A total of 332 women who were Jehovah's Witnesses had 391 deliveries. An obstetric hemorrhage was experienced in 6% of this population. There were 2 maternal deaths among the women who were Jehovah's Witnesses, for a rate of 512 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births versus 12 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births (risk ratio, 44; 95% CI, 9-211). Erythropoietin was associated with a nonsignificant increase in hematocrit level. CONCLUSION: Women who are Jehovah's Witnesses are at a 44-fold increased risk of maternal death, which is due to obstetric hemorrhage. Patients should be counseled about this risk of death, and obstetric hemorrhage should be aggressively treated, including a rapid decision to proceed to hysterectomy when indicated.     

A non-inflatable anti-shock garment for obstetric hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal death from hemorrhage in low resource settings is frequently due to long delays in transportation to referral centers and/or in obtaining blood and surgical interventions. This case series was designed to demonstrate the feasibility, efficacy and safety of the non-inflatable anti-shock garment (NI-ASG) for resuscitation and hemostasis in the initial management of obstetric hemorrhage and shock. METHODS: Fourteen cases of obstetric hemorrhage and hypovolemic shock at Memorial Christian Hospital, Sialkot, Pakistan were managed with a specific clinical protocol based on using NI-ASG as the primary intervention. RESULTS: The NI-ASG was used to resuscitate and stabilize women with hypovolemic shock from 18 to 57 h. Thirteen patients survived without evidence of morbidity, but one had prolonged shock followed by multiple organ failure and death. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed that the NI-ASG quickly restored the vital signs of most women in severe hemorrhagic shock and stabilized them while awaiting blood transfusion.     

Improving hospital systems for the care of women with major obstetric hemorrhage

OBJECTIVE: When 2 maternal deaths due to hemorrhage occurred at New York Hospital Queens in 2000-2001, a multidisciplinary team implemented systemic change. Our objective was to improve outcomes of episodes of major obstetric hemorrhage. METHODS: We report outcomes before (2000-2001) and after (2002-2005) the introduction of a patient safety program aimed at improving the care of women with major obstetric hemorrhage. Process changes were instituted in late 2001 at the direction of a multidisciplinary patient safety team. A rapid response team was formulated using the cardiac arrest team as a model. Protocols for early diagnosis, assessment, and management of patients at high risk for major obstetric hemorrhage were developed and communicated to staff. RESULTS: There were significant increases in cesarean births (P < .001), repeat cesarean births (P = .002), and cases of major obstetric hemorrhage (P = .02) between the periods of 2000-2001 and 2002-2005. There was a significant improvement in mortality due to hemorrhage (P = .036), lowest pH (P = .004), and lowest temperature (P < .001) when comparing 2000-2001 with 2002-2005. There were no differences in measures of severity of obstetric hemorrhage between the 2 periods, including Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II scores, occurrence of placenta accreta and estimated blood loss. CONCLUSION: Despite a significant increase in major obstetric hemorrhage cases, we found improved outcomes and fewer maternal deaths after implementing systemic approaches to improve patient safety. Attention to improving the hospital systems necessary for the care of women at risk for major obstetric hemorrhage is important in the effort to decrease maternal mortality from hemorrhage.     

ROUTINE BLOOD BANK REQUESTS IN OBSTETRICS: A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE POLICY

Obstetrics and gynecology departments are major contributors to routine blood bank requests, and routine blood testing should be examined in an era of cost consciousness in medicine. At the National Naval Medical Center, all patients admitted for labor have a type and screen performed to prepare for a possible transfusion in the event of obstetric hemorrhage. This study evaluated the transfusion experience during a 6-month period with regard to two factors—clinical predictors of transfusion and time course of transfusion—to determine a safe and effective prepartum blood ordering policy. Abnormal placentation (placenta previa and placenta percreta) and severe coagulopathies were risk factors for transfusion; however, the majority of the transfused patients had no risk factors for transfusion and could not have been identified on admission. Evaluation of time of transfusion in the study patients and the time required to process blood bank requests supports a routine “hold clot” ordering policy as a safe substitute for routine type and screen in low-risk obstetric patients.     

The use of blood in obstetrics and gynecology in the developing world

Access to safe blood is critical in comprehensive emergency obstetric care and for reducing maternal mortality. Many countries have inadequate blood supplies, and this disproportionately affects women and children in need of life-saving blood transfusions. Although preventative measures aimed at reducing postpartum hemorrhage by treating underlying anemia and infectious diseases are critical, they are insufficient for obstetric hemorrhage. In the developing world, efforts should focus on alternative means of providing safe blood in cases of hemorrhage, with particular focus on rapid testing, donation of warm whole blood, and autologous blood transfusion.     

宫腔填塞在产后出血的应用

在我国和大多数发展中国家,产后出血仍是孕产妇死亡的首位原因。发生产后出血时应尽快查明原因,积极综合治疗。本文主要阐述控制产后出血的保守治疗措施——宫腔填塞。通常是用纱布或球囊,尤其是近年来应用的Bakri球囊,放入子宫腔内起到止血作用,以减少子宫切除率。     

Introduction: Obstetric venous thromboembolism

How to best reduce maternal risk from obstetric venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a relatively controversial topic. In comparison, for other leading causes of maternal mortality and severe morbidity such as obstetric hemorrhage and hypertension, there is general agreement on recommendations. While obstetric VTE poses a unique epidemiological and public health challenge, a number of recommendations related to care improvement and patient safety can be made. This edition of Seminars in Perinatology focuses on (i) overview of clinical research and epidemiology that can serve as a basis for informed decision making regarding VTE prophylaxis strategies, (ii) VTE prophylaxis implementation from a leadership perspective, (iii) future directions for research on obstetric VTE, and (iv) critical care management of obstetric VTE.     

A surgical alternative for placenta accreta

The placenta accreta is the second leading cause of obstetric hemorrhage in the world. In many occasions it is necessary to make an obstetric hysterectomy, a circumstance that increases morbidity, and maternal mortality. Communicates a surgical alternative to hysterectomy obstetric that has enabled us to reduce until the time to zero our rate of maternal deaths by obstetric hemorrhage, in addition to reducing the surgical time and the associated morbidity, without changing the perinatal outcome.     

Measuring and communicating blood loss during obstetric hemorrhage

Accurate quantification of blood loss is an essential skill necessary to prevent maternal morbidity and mortality associated with obstetric hemorrhage. Visual estimation of blood has been consistently shown to be extremely inaccurate. The nurse plays a pivotal role in quantifying blood loss after birth, recognizing triggers, mobilizing needed interventions, and providing essential communication.     

血栓弹力图在高危妊娠中的研究进展

血栓弹力图(thrombelastography,TEG)是一种反映全血凝血功能的图像,是一种能从整体上动态评价凝血和纤溶过程的检测手段。妊娠期凝血-抗凝系统及纤溶-抗纤溶系统的变化使妊娠妇女的凝血系统处于高凝状态,这种高凝状态既是一种生理性保护机制,又是诱发凝血功能障碍的高危因素。一旦这种高凝状态的动态平衡被打破,可参与产科并发症的发生,严重威胁着孕产妇和胎儿的安全。TEG能够真实、全面地反映妊娠期妇女凝血功能的变化,对复发性流产、妊娠期高血压疾病、羊水栓塞、产后出血和产科血栓栓塞性疾病等高危妊娠及妊娠期并发症的预测及病情评估具有重要的临床价值,为指导临床决策、早期干预、缓解或延迟并发症和预防不良妊娠结局提供科学依据。     

Obstetric Hemorrhage Current Management and Usefulness of Protocols,Checklist, Drills

Obstetrical hemorrhage continues to be an important contributor to maternal morbidity and mortality in the USA. Although preventable, it is still the 5th leading cause of maternal death, often due to factors associated with a delay in recognition by providers and/or delay in treatment. We cannot overlook the fact that for every maternal death due to hemorrhage, there are at least 100 women who suffer severe morbidity. It is known that implementing hemorrhage-specific protocols can improve outcomes related to this condition. This review will update readers in early detection and preparation, diagnosis, and treatment of obstetric hemorrhage while highlighting the different institution-specific protocols, cognitive aids, and drills.     

Emergency obstetric hysterectomy

BACKGROUND: All cases of obstetric hysterectomies that were performed in our hospital during a seven-year study period were reviewed in order to evaluate the incidence, indications, risk factors, and complications associated with emergency obstetric hysterectomy. METHODS: Medical records of 45 patients who had undergone emergency hysterectomy were scrutinized and evaluated retrospectively. Maternal age, parity, gestational age, indication for hysterectomy, the type of operation performed, estimated blood loss, amount of blood transfused, complications, and hospitalization period were noted and evaluated. The main outcome measures were the factors associated with obstetric hysterectomy as well as the indications for the procedure. RESULTS: During the study period there were 32,338 deliveries and 9,601 of them (29.7%) were by cesarean section. In this period, 45 emergency hysterectomies were performed, with an incidence of 1 in 2,526 vaginal deliveries and 1 in 267 cesarean sections. All of them were due to massive postpartum hemorrhage. The most common underlying pathologies was placenta accreta (51.1%) and placenta previa (26.7%). There was no maternal mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Obstetric hysterectomy is a necessary life-saving procedure. Abnormal placentation is the leading cause of emergency hysterectomy when obstetric practice is characterized by a high cesarean section rate. Therefore, every attempt should be made to reduce the cesarean section rate by performing this procedure only for valid clinical indications.     

Antenatal sonographic detection of an unusual placental lake under the cord insertion

Presentation We detected an unusual placental lake under the membranes between the two lobes of a placenta bilobate with a turbulent blood flow in it. This was an extraordinary maternal lake: simply the accumulation of maternal blood inside the intervillous space in an area where villous structures were absent between the placental lobes. The lake reduced in size and became almost invisible during the Braxton Hicks contractions, and enlarged up to its previous dimensions at the end of contractions. This extraordinarily huge lake showed an interesting dynamic appearance on sonographic examination. Outcome Although it caused no complications during the course of the pregnancy it produced an obstetric hemorrhage, which took place during the second stage of the delivery. Pathologic examination confirmed the diagnosis of placenta bilobate. We present its interesting appearance and clinical outcome in this paper.     

Mechanisms of hemostasis at cesarean delivery

Postpartum hemorrhage is an obstetric emergency that represents a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. With the recent rise in the cesarean delivery rate, prompt recognition and proper management at the time of cesarean delivery are becoming increasingly important for providers of obstetrics. Preparedness for hemorrhage can be achieved by recognition of prior risk factors and implementation of specific hemorrhage protocols. Medical and surgical therapies are available to treat obstetric hemorrhage after cesarean delivery.     

Management of massive postpartum haemorrhage and coagulopathy

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) continues to remain the leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Whilst this is especially true in resource limited countries, it also remains a significant problem in developed countries. The traditional definition of primary PPH is blood loss from the genital tract of 500 ml or more within 24 h of delivery (or >1000 ml during caesarean section). Secondary PPH refers to an excessive blood loss between 24 h and 6 weeks, postnatally. Massive PPH refers to a blood loss of over 2000 ml (or >30% of blood volume) and hence, is an obstetric emergency that requires a systematic, multi-disciplinary approach to restore the volume, clotting system and the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, whilst steps are taken to arrest bleeding as quickly as possible.The last confidential enquiry into maternal deaths (CEMACH, 2003–2005) in the UK cited ‘haemorrhage’ as the third highest cause of direct maternal deaths with 6.6 deaths per million maternities. This report found that 58% of these deaths may have been preventable and ‘too little being done, too late’ (failure to appreciate clinical picture, delay in instituting appropriate treatment, delay is summoning senior help and system failures) continues to contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality, even in the developed world.Massive obstetric haemorrhage may occur in the antepartum (placenta praevia, placental abruption and placenta accreta) or postpartum period. It is has been observed that the incidence of massive PPH is likely to be increasing due to the increased incidence of risk factors such as morbidly adherent placenta secondary to previous caesarean sections and maternal obesity. However, massive obstetric haemorrhage and the resultant coagulopathy can occur in women deemed to be at ‘low risk’ and hence, all clinicians managing women during pregnancy and labour need to possess knowledge and skills to recognize symptoms, signs and complications of massive obstetric haemorrhage. This may ensure institution of timely and appropriate treatment that could save lives.     

Maternal, fetal, and newborn complications associated with newborn intracranial hemorrhage

Two hundred twenty newborn infants with one or more fetal or newborn complications and 54 newborn infants without fetal or newborn complications were prospectively studied to assess the relationship between maternal, obstetric, fetal, and newborn complications and intracranial hemorrhage. Intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 47 newborn infants with fetal or newborn complications (21%) and in one infant with no fetal or newborn complications (2%). Maternal and obstetric complications, duration of labor, and mode of delivery were not associated with intracranial hemorrhage. Newborn immaturity at delivery is an important factor in the occurrence of intracranial hemorrhage. There is little evidence that fetal hypoxia is a contributing factor. Severe respiratory complications and major infections are newborn complications associated with intracranial hemorrhage.     

Placenta accreta: a surgical alternative that can save lives

The placenta accreta is the second leading cause of obstetric hemorrhage, which often require the implementation of emergency obstetric hysterectomy increased morbidity and mortality. We present a surgical alternative to hysterectomy obstetric allowed us to reduce to zero until our rate of maternal deaths from obstetric hemorrhage. Improving surgical times, associated morbidity, without altering perinatal outcomes.     

Obstetric factors and relative risk of neonatal germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage

One hundred fifty-five inborn infants with a birth weight <- 1,500 gm were prospectively evaluated for germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage. Maternal characteristics, obstetric factors, and neonatal condition in the immediate newborn period were analyzed as possible risk factors for germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage. Early germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage or hemorrhages identified during the first 24 hours of life were observed in 85 (55%) of these infants. Another 37 (24%) had germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage after 24 hours of age (late germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage). None of the maternal and obstetric variables, including labor, mode of delivery, and presentation, appeared to increase the risk of germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage. The immediate neonatal condition, birth weight, gestational age, and intrauterine growth, all influenced the occurrence of germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage, especially early germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage. We suggest that future studies to investigate the role of maternal or obstetric factors in the pathogenesis of germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage should discriminate early from late germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage. Obstetric factors are more likely to influence the early onset of germinal layer/intraventricular hemorrhage; their effect, if any, becomes less discernible later.