Transformation of health care in China

The evolving Chinese cooperative medical system is examined in an effort to gain some valuable knowledge for both the 3rd world and developed countries. The changes occurring in the Chinese health system are the unintended consequences of economic reforms that have exerted direct and indirect effects on the organization, financing, and delivery of health care. As China does not publish complete or current information on its health care system, the discussion draws on limited published information. China, an agrarian nation, has a population of 1 billion with 80% of the people living in rural areas. A gross national product of US$300/person in 1981 places China in the bottom 1/3 of the developing countries. In 1981 China had 2 hospital beds/1000 people. There are 516,000 senior doctors trained in Western medicine and 290,000 senior doctors trained in traditional Chinese medicine, yielding a ratio of 0.8 senior doctors/1000 people. China also has 436,000 assistant doctors in Western medicine, but most of the primary health care is provided by "barefoot doctors." Hospital beds and health personnel are unevenly distributed between the urban and rural areas. Health personnel, health stations, and hospitals are organized on a 3-tier system. In 1980 China inaugurated major economic reforms in agricultural production and public financing. Alterations in the rural economic structure brought about major changes in the Chinese cooperative medical system. The most influential reform provided financial incentives to peasants, who now receive direct rewards for individual output. Because of economic reform, collective financing and public support for the cooperative medical system diminished. The proportion of the rural population protected by the system has been reduced by 50%. The rapid, continuing decline in the cooperative medical system has affected several important elements of health care: the number of barefoot doctors per capita has diminished; most barefoot doctors forego continuing education; there has been an increase in the financial burden borne by peasants; and hospitals are experiencing financial problems. With the collapse of cooperative health care financing, many barefoot doctors have created private practices, charging patients on a fee for service basis and selling drugs to them. In some brigades, the peasants have organized voluntary health insurance programs, but the peasants face problems in organizing voluntary insurance programs. 1 consequence of the rising income of peasants is their demand for higher quality medical care. The Chinese experience illustrates the effects of economic structure on the supply of health personnel, the demand for services, and the organization and financing of health care. Economic incentives affected the supply of health personnel. Another lesson to be learned is the need to establish a universal, compulsory financial system for health care. The Chinese experience also demonstrates that the pricing structure influences the demand and need for insurance.     

Management and prevention of ocular viral and chlamydial infections

A majority of cases of preventable and/or curable ocular morbidity and blindness are caused by ocular infections. They may account for 70 to 90% of all ocular morbidity seen by family doctors, general practitioners, health centers, and local ophthalmologists in both developed and developing countries. Unfortunately, most health authorities and doctors, including ophthalmologists, consider these diseases to be of little or no importance because they are not fully aware of the high prevalence of these infections and the blinding sequelae which may occur following incorrect diagnosis and treatment. Also, they are not aware of the social and economic impact of these infections in the absence of proper management and implementation of preventive measures. In this review, we examine present knowledge of chlamydial and common viral ocular infections. We discuss the problems of diagnosis, management, and prevention and propose solutions relevant to developed and developing countries.     

Medical demography in Denmark. I. From a deficit to a surplus of doctors

In the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s Denmark like other western countries has experienced a substantial growth in the number of medical doctors. Throughout the country, the doctor population ratio has improved considerably, a number of new specialised methods of examination and treatment have been started, and the need for doctors to work overtime has largely been abolished. At the same time, however, the growth in the number of doctors has also given rise to problems of postgraduate education, unemployment, the emigration. Furthermore, there has been political anxiety about the impact of an ever growing supply of new doctors on the continuous growth in health expenditure. This article briefly describes the development in the number of doctors through the last decades and the status of the current employment of doctors. Problems created by the growth in the number of doctors, and various initiatives to solve the problems and limit the growth in the supply of doctors are examined. A subsequent article will discuss and elucidate the future development in supply and demand on the employment market for doctors. The article begins with a short outline of the Danish health care system.     

Job stressors and coping in health professions

In spite of their knowledge about stressors, health hazards and coping, health professionals are in general not aware of their own health risks. In an attempt to clarify the issue results of our own studies are compared to the relevant literature. A survey on 1,248 Swiss nurses confirmed the major stressors known: ethical conflicts about appropriate patient care, team conflicts, role ambiguity, workload and organizational deficits. In doctors workload and shortage of time, combined with specific responsibility in decision making, are most prominent. Nevertheless, job satisfaction is still high in both professions. Health hazards in doctors are considerable, although life expectancy has improved and is comparable to the general public, but still lower as compared to other professionals. Depression and substance abuse are related to higher suicide rates. The specific role strain of female doctors is responsible for health risks with an alarming 10 years lower life expectancy than in the general population. Little is known about specific health hazards in nurses, except for burnout. A lack of coping research in the field makes conclusions difficult. Our own studies show limited coping skills in nurses, but good buffering effect in 1,700 Swiss dentists.     

Factors influencing the recommendation of the Human Papillomavirus vaccine by South African doctors working in a tertiary hospital

BackgroundIn South Africa, HPV vaccination programme has been incorporated recently in the school health system. Since doctors are the most trusted people regarding health issues in general, their knowledge and attitudes regarding HPV infections and vaccination are very important for HPV vaccine program nationally.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to investigate factors contributing to recommendation of HPV vaccines to the patients.MethodsThis was a quantitative cross-sectional study conducted among 320 doctors, using a self-administered anonymous questionnaire.ResultsAll the doctors were aware of HPV and knew that HPV is transmitted sexually. Their overall level of knowledge regarding HPV infections and HPV vaccine was poor. But the majority intended to prescribe the vaccine to their patients. It was found that doctors who knew that HPV 6 and 11 are responsible for >90% of anogenital warts, their patients would comply with the counselling regarding HPV vaccination, and received sufficient information about HPV vaccination were 5.68, 4.91 and 4.46 times respectively more likely to recommend HPV vaccination to their patients, compared to their counterparts (p<0.05).ConclusionThere was a knowledge gap regarding HPV infection and HPV vaccine among the doctors.     

Pandémie grippale A/H5N1 et niveau de préparation du Niger: une étude sur les connaissances des soignants et l’organisation générale des soins

In industrialized countries, the emergence of potentially pandemic influenza virus has invited reactions consistent with the potential threat represented by these infectious agents. However, with globalization, controlling epidemics depends as much on an effective global coordination of control methods as on preparedness of northern and southern national health care systems, at the core of which are health care workers. Our study was conducted in the National Hospital of Niamey, the main Nigerian hospital. Its objective was to evaluate the knowledge of health care professionals regarding flu pandemic and control of infection. We interviewed 178 nursing staff, doctors and paramedics on the basis of a survey. This study - the first to our knowledge to explore these issues in the African context-revealed that caregivers have a rather good mastery of theoretical knowledge. Nevertheless, beyond theoretical knowledge, miscellaneous factors compromise the effectiveness of the health care structure. Some of them seem to occupy a critical position, particularly the absence of shared references among sanitary authorities and health care professionals, and the weaknesses of global coordination of preventive activities and case management.     

Access to and use of the Internet by South African general practitioners

INTRODUCTION: In the developed world, doctors use the Internet to support the delivery of health care. Their usage patterns are explained by Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations. There is no knowledge of Internet usage by doctors in the developing world. METHODS: In July 2006, 2600 survey forms were posted in the first national survey of South African (SA) General Practitioners' (GPs) use of the Internet. A sample of non-responders was followed up. The aim was to determine SA GPs' Internet usage patterns, to compare them to world usage, and to examine them in the light of Diffusion of Innovations. RESULTS: A 10% usable response rate was a major weakness, but similar surveys are unlikely to be more representative. 89% of SA GPs have Internet access, home usage is high, and overall usage patterns are equivalent to the usage patterns of international studies. DISCUSSION: In spite of the overall technological under-development in South Africa, as predicted by Diffusion of Innovations, SA GPs have adopted the technology, and use it for health care in much the same way as their international counterparts. Further studies on some of the details will be valuable. CONCLUSION: The indications are that SA GPs will reap the benefits of the Internet as it continues to evolve, and translate these into improved health care delivery in South Africa.     

International sore throats

This paper reports on an international study of the diagnostic behaviour of doctors presented with patients complaining of a sore throat. Differences were found between individual doctors' predicted and actual behaviour, and between the behaviour of doctors in different countries.     

Nursing constraint models for electronic health records: a vision for domain knowledge governance

Various forms of electronic health records (EHRs) are currently being introduced in several countries. Nurses are primary stakeholders and need to ensure that their information and knowledge needs are being met by such systems information sharing between health care providers to enable them to improve the quality and efficiency of health care service delivery for all subjects of care. The latest international EHR standards have adopted the openEHR approach of two-level modelling. The first level is a stable information model determining structure, while the second level consists of constraint models or 'archetypes' that reflect the specifications or clinician rules for how clinical information needs to be represented to enable unambiguous data sharing. The current state of play in terms of international health informatics standards development activities is providing the nursing profession with a unique opportunity and challenge. Much work has been undertaken internationally in the area of nursing terminologies and evidence-based practice. This paper argues that to make the most of these emerging technologies and EHRs we must now concentrate on developing a process to identify, document, implement, manage and govern our nursing domain knowledge as well as contribute to the development of relevant international standards. It is argued that one comprehensive nursing terminology, such as the ICNP or SNOMED CT is simply too complex and too difficult to maintain. As the openEHR archetype approach does not rely heavily on big standardised terminologies, it offers more flexibility during standardisation of clinical concepts and it ensures open, future-proof electronic health records. We conclude that it is highly desirable for the nursing profession to adopt this openEHR approach as a means of documenting and governing the nursing profession's domain knowledge. It is essential for the nursing profession to develop its domain knowledge constraint models (archetypes) collaboratively in an international context.     

Conocimiento médico sobre el niño con neumonía: consistencia con las recomendaciones

IntroductionThe evaluation of child care guidelines with pneumonia has based its results mainly on the use of antimicrobials, little is known about the knowledge that these doctors have for the adequate care of the child. The aim of the study was to assess the level of knowledge about the approach that physicians had on the child with pneumonia and compare them with national and international recommendations.Materials and methodsAn observational, cross-sectional study was carried out by means of an anonymous questionnaire, with which the knowledge about diagnosis and treatment was evaluated. The results of the questionnaire were weighted. The Chi square test and the one-way analysis of variance were used to estimate the relationship between the results of the questionnaire with the age of the doctor, the place where he worked, the academic level and the patients evaluated per week.ResultsTwo hundred doctors were evaluated, 43% were internal doctors. It was achieved with statistical significance that the level of knowledge was positively related to the academic level and in a negative way with the age of the doctor and the place where he worked.ConclusionIt was possible to establish the inadequacy of the guidelines and recommendations for assistance to children with pneumonia in a medical subpopulation, which is why this study is considered the first step to implement policies aimed at improving the quality and level of knowledge as a condition to modify morbidity and mortality in the Sucre state.     

The general practitioner as the first contacted health professional by patients with psychosocial problems: a European study.

BACKGROUND: There are considerable differences between and within countries in the involvement of general practitioners (GPs) in psychosocial care. This study aimed to describe the self-perceived role of GPs in 30 European countries as the first contacted professional for patients with psychosocial problems. and to examine the relationship with characteristics of the health care system, practice organization and doctors. METHODS: Data collected in the European Study of GP Task Profiles were analysed in relation to the self-perceived involvement of GPs in psychosocial care. In 30 countries 7233 GPs answered standardized questionnaires in their own languages about seven brief case scenarios. The questions focused on care given as the first health care professional contacted, and were answered in a scored scale (1-4) ranging from 'never' to 'almost always'. Independent variables examined were both on a national level and on an individual level, including: listed practice population, referral system, employment status of GPs, workload, measures of practice organization, contacts with social workers and urbanization of practice area. Data were analysed using multi-level techniques. RESULTS: Self-perceived involvement in psychosocial care was much higher in Western than in Eastern Europe and also in countries with a referral system. Cooperation with social workers, rural practice, keeping medical records, presence of an appointment system and high workload were positively associated with this perceived involvement. CONCLUSIONS: In countries with self-employed doctors and a referral system, GPs are in a better position to provide psychosocial care. GPs should be encouraged to cooperate with social workers and to keep medical records of their patient contacts routinely.     

Attitudes towards self-health care: a survey of GP trainees

The self-healthcare employed by doctors has been found to be less than ideal in studies from several different countries. The aim of this study was to explore the attitudes towards self-healthcare specifically among General Practitioner trainees who are in the early phases of their careers. A questionnaire was anonymously filled out by 100 trainees, which looked at areas such as lifestyle issues, prevention issues and health seeking behaviours. Results included that 30% of trainees had not been to a General Practitioner within the previous five years, 35% directly referred themselves to a consultant, 65% percent felt unable to take time off when ill and 92% self-prescribed medication on at least one occasion. Almost half of the participants felt they neglected their own health (49%). Trainees appear to be following the same trends that have been reported among older/ established doctors in other studies. There is a need to highlight and improve awareness about self-healthcare from early on in a doctor's career as the implications for reduced health and well-being of a doctor can be serious for themselves and their patients.     

重性精神疾病管理治疗项目保定市示范区精神卫生知识调查

目的 了解重性精神疾病管理治疗项目(以下简称"686项目")示范区不同群体对精神卫生知识的知晓程度与差别.为进一步普及精神卫生知识奠定基础.方法 以河北省"686项目"城乡2个示范区为调查群体,重点调查社区干部,社区医生、精神疾病患者家属及普通人群,并对4个群体进行调查比较.结果 ①被调查者总知晓率为56.91%,其中...     

The boomerang effect of tuberculosis knowledge and self-efficacy on Chinese parents’ intention to seek timely treatment and adhere to doctors’ regimens

ObjectiveThe present study tested the level of tuberculosis (TB) knowledge of Chinese parents whose children attended kindergarten, primary school, and middle school, and examined whether their TB knowledge and self-efficacy in TB management exhibited a curvilinear relationship with their intention to seek timely TB treatment and adhere to doctors’ regimens if their children are infected with TB.MethodsAn online cross-sectional survey (N = 1129) was conducted. TB knowledge was assessed based on the manual provided by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Hierarchical polynomial regression was conducted to test the proposed curvilinear relationships.ResultsChinese parents lacked knowledge about risks of TB and how to prevent TB. TB knowledge and self-efficacy in TB management motivated Chinese parents to seek timely TB treatment and adhere to doctors’ regimens, but too much knowledge and self-efficacy predicted both intentions negatively.ConclusionExcessive levels of self-efficacy in self-management and health knowledge could backfire.Practice implicationPractitioners should elevate Chinese parents’ perceptions of severity of TB and susceptibility to TB. Additionally, health education should not be limited to providing medical facts but offer guidance on how to access professional medical resources. Self-efficacy in self-management should not be elevated.     

National standard setting for quality of care in general practice: attitudes of general practitioners and response to a set of standards.

The Nederlands Huisartsen Genootschap (NHG), the college of general practitioners in the Netherlands, has begun a national programme of standard setting for the quality of care in general practice. When the standards have been drawn up and assessed they are disseminated via the journal Huisarts en Wetenschap. In a survey, carried out among a randomized sample of 10% of all general practitioners, attitudes towards national standard setting in general and to the first set of standards (diabetes care) were studied. The response was 70% (453 doctors). A majority of the respondents said they were well informed about the national standard setting initiatives instigated by the NHG (71%) and about the content of the first standards (77%). The general practitioners had a positive attitude towards the setting of national standards for quality of care, and this was particularly true for doctors who were members of the NHG. Although a large majority of doctors said they agreed with most of the guidelines in the diabetes standards fewer respondents were actually working to the guidelines and some of the standards are certain to meet with a lot of resistance. A better knowledge of the standards and a more positive attitude to the process of national standard setting correlated with a more positive attitude to the guidelines formulated in the diabetes standards. The results could serve as a starting point for an exchange of views about standard setting in general practice in other countries.     

Doctors as patients: a systematic review of doctors' health access and the barriers they experience

BACKGROUND: The need to improve doctors' access to health care by reducing the barriers they experience has been regularly described in the literature, yet the barriers experienced are not well defined, despite the volume of expert opinion in this area. AIM: To define what is known about doctors' access to health care from the data within the current literature. DESIGN OF STUDY: A systematic review of studies of doctors' health access. METHOD: A systematic search of MEDLINE and CINAHL, supplemented by citation searches and searches of the grey literature, identified both quantitative and qualitative studies. Two reviewers used specific criteria for inclusion of studies and quality assessment. The data were tabulated and analysed. RESULTS: Twenty-six articles met the inclusion criteria. The paucity of data and the overall poor quality of those data are highlighted. Despite this, many doctors appear to have a GP, but this does not ensure adequate health access. Systemic barriers to healthcare access (long hours and cultural issues) are more significant than individual barriers. CONCLUSION: Expert opinion in this field is supported by poor-quality data. The current knowledge reveals important similarities between doctors and the general population in their healthcare access, especially with mental health issues. Understanding this may help the medical profession to respond to these issues of 'doctors' health' more effectively.     

Skill needs for nurses in their role as health informatics professionals: a survey in the context of global health informatics education

In the process of developing global health informatics education, a common understanding of educational outcomes is required. Therefore, an educational framework for health informatics professionals is desirable to support student mobility, trans-national and borderless education. Nurses form a significant part of the health workforce and need to be properly educated for their roles in health informatics. To ascertain their perceptions of needs and priorities, we developed a web-based questionnaire and surveyed Australian nurses on the preferred knowledge/skills set for health informatics professionals. Among others, the questionnaire is based on the International Medical Informatics Association's (IMIA) set of recommendations on education and IMIA's scientific map. Benner's five levels of competencies were applied to measure the degree of competency required for each skill/knowledge. Altogether, 82 Australian nurses completed the questionnaire. The nurses' perceived degree of competency required for a total of 74 specific skills and knowledge in five skill categories is presented in this paper as well as the overall results for each of the five categories. Further, significant differences between the nurses' primary roles and primary interest in health informatics are discussed. The development of a comprehensive health informatics education framework needs to take into account nurses as well as other health professionals. Repeating the survey in other countries and for various professions is essential to develop an international educational framework.     

Continuing Medical Education: an international reality

We are all aware today of the growing interest in continuing medical education (CME) programmes in many European Countries and it is important to understand why and how CME could become an international reality. It is obvious that patients need a good doctor--the best possible--as far as medical knowledge, attention to the patient's quality of life and cost-control is concerned. All European health care systems have to take into consideration everything that causes patient dissatisfaction, risk management and unjustified expenses. An example is the increase of claims and complaints against doctors and the strong attention of patients to medical procedures. In other words, medicine worldwide is becoming a service industry and has to consider quality and quantity of performances as well as to pay attention to personal responsibility. The object of our work is to evaluate the CME systems present in Europe, to show the work done on CME by the CME Committee of the European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology and to highlight the Consensus Report on CME approved by an international panel of CME experts.