灵芝多糖对阿尔茨海默病大鼠学习记忆影响及与海马细胞凋亡的关系

目的:观察灵芝多糖(GLP)对阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型大鼠学习记忆影响并探讨其与海马细胞凋亡的关系。方法:用立体定位技术对海马CA1区微量注射Aβ25~35造成AD模型;Morris水迷宫检测大鼠记忆水平;电子显微镜、流式细胞仪检测海马凋亡。结果:GLP可明显提高Aβ25~35所致痴呆大鼠学习记忆水平,显著降低海马细胞凋亡率。结论:GLP对AD大鼠的保护作用与降低海马细胞凋亡率有关。     

复方地黄对阿尔次海默大鼠学习记忆及海马细胞凋亡的影响

目的观察复方地黄对阿尔海默病(Alzheimer'sdisease,AD)模型大鼠学习记忆的影响并探讨其与海马细胞凋亡的关系。方法用立体定位技术对大鼠海马CA1区微量注射喹啉酸(QA)造成AD模型,Morris水迷宫检测大鼠学习记忆水平,电子显微镜、Tunnel和流式细胞仪检测海马细胞凋亡。结果复方地黄可明显提高QA所致痴呆大鼠学习记忆水平,显著降低海马细胞的凋亡率。结论复方地黄对AD大鼠的保护作用可能与降低海马细胞凋亡有关。     

褪黑素对阿尔茨海默病模型大鼠学习记忆能力及海马CA3区神经元的保护作用

目的 观察褪黑素(MT)对阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型大鼠学习记忆及海马CA3区神经元的保护作用.方法 随机将60只雄性Wistar大鼠分为正常对照组、AD模型组与MT治疗组.采用右侧海马CA1区注射β-淀粉样蛋白1～40(Aβ1～40)构建AD动物模型,MT治疗组以MT(10mg/kg·d)腹腔注射,正常对照组与AD模型...     

脑室注射同型半胱氨酸对脑缺血大鼠β淀粉样蛋白及认知功能的影响

目的:观察脑室注射同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)对实验性脑缺血大鼠脑组织β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)的表达及学习记忆的影响。方法:Wistar雄性成年大鼠按随机数字表法分为假手术组、脑缺血组、Hcy组。采用线栓法建立左侧大脑中动脉脑缺血大鼠模型,2 h后同侧脑室立体定向注射Hcy(3μmol/L)。采用Morris水迷宫测试各组大鼠学习记忆能力;化学定量法检测血浆中Hcy含量;免疫荧光组织化学检测Aβ42、β-分泌酶(BACE1)在海马CA1区神经元中的共定位;免疫印迹检测Aβ42、BACE1在海马CA1区中的表达变化;结果:与假手术组相比,脑缺血组逃避潜伏期延长,穿越平台次数及平台象限停留时间均减少,并且Aβ42和BACE1表达明显上调,差异均有统计学意义。Hcy脑室注射后显著增加Aβ42和BACE1表达,明显加重脑损伤后的学习和记忆功能障碍。结论:Hcy可以导致脑缺血大鼠的学习记忆功能障碍,海马CA1区Aβ42和BACE1表达升高可能是其机制之一。     

二苯乙烯苷对大鼠癫(癎)引发的学习记忆功能的影响及保护作用

目的:研究二苯乙烯苷(tetrahydroxy stilbene glucoside,TSG)对癫(癎)大鼠脑损伤的保护作用及可能机制.方法:将SD大鼠随机分为假手术组、模型组、TSG干预组,应用立体定向脑室内微量注射的方法建立海人藻酸(KA)诱导的大鼠癫(癎)模型.5d后通过Morris水迷宫实验测定大鼠学习记忆功能;取脑行Nissl染色观察大鼠海马神经元的形态及数目改变.结果:与假手术组相比,模型组大鼠学习记忆能力明显降低,海马CA1区神经元大量丢失,结构紊乱.而TSG干预组可使癫(癎)引发的学习记忆能力降低的情况得到改善,抑制海马CA1区神经元的丢失,改善神经元结构.结论:TSG对癫(痫)引发的脑损伤,尤其是对海马区神经元迟发性凋亡具有明显的改善作用.     

3-甲基腺嘌呤对Aβ(25-35)引起的海马神经元凋亡的影响

目的: 探讨阿尔茨海默病(AD)大鼠海马神经元自噬对凋亡的影响。方法: SD大鼠随机分成模型组、自噬抑制剂3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA)预处理组和对照组。模型组大鼠用立体定位技术对海马CA1区微量注射Aβ(25-35)造成AD模型;3-MA预处理组大鼠在注射Aβ(25-35)之前对海马CA1区微量注射3-MA。Morris水迷宫检测大鼠记忆水平;行为学测试后,观察海马神经元超微结构变化、自噬泡的形成、beclin-1的表达以及细胞凋亡情况。结果: 3-MA预处理组与模型组比较,大鼠学习记忆能力显著下降(P<0.05),海马神经元凋亡率显著增加(P<0.05),而beclin-1的表达量减少;模型组海马神经元可见双层膜包裹形成的自噬泡,神经元破坏程度明显轻于3-MA预处理组。结论: 抑制神经元自噬水平增加神经元凋亡;诱导神经元自噬可能是防治阿尔茨海默病的一个潜在方法。     

白花丹参根制剂对AD大鼠学习记忆和海马CA1区神经元凋亡的影响

目的:探讨白花丹参根制剂对Aβ1-40诱导的AD模型大鼠学习记忆能力及海马CA1区神经元凋亡的影响。方法:采用双侧海马微量注射凝聚状态Aβ1-40诱导AD大鼠模型。测定白花丹参根制剂干预前后AD模型大鼠学习记忆能力,海马CA1区Ach含量、Ch AT和Ach E活性,海马神经元凋亡率以及海马区Bax和Bcl-2蛋白表达的变化。结果:与正常组比较,模型组大鼠逃避潜伏期延长,穿越站台次数和第三象限游泳时间减少,大鼠海马CA1区神经内Ach含量减少,而Ch AT和Ach E活性升高,同时海马CA1区神经元凋亡率增加,Bax蛋白表达水平上调,Bcl-2蛋白表达水平下调,Bcl-2/Bax比值降低。与模型组比较,治疗组大鼠逃避潜伏期缩短,穿越站台次数明显和第三象限活动时间增加,大鼠海马CA1区神经内Ach含量升高,而Ch AT和Ach E活性降低,同时海马CA1区神经元凋亡率降低,Bax蛋白表达水平下调,Bcl-2蛋白表达水平上调,Bcl-2/Bax比值升高。结论:白花丹参根制剂可有效提高AD模型大鼠学习记忆能力,其机制可能与改善胆碱能系统的功能、上调Bcl-2和下调Bax蛋白表达水平有关。     

雌激素对阿尔茨海默病大鼠模型MAPK蛋白表达的影响

目的探讨雌激素对阿尔茨海默病(AD)大鼠模型学习记忆能力及丝裂霉原活化的蛋白激酶(MAPK)蛋白表达的影响。方法30只大鼠行卵巢切除术(OVX)后,均分成OVX组和雌激素替代治疗组(ERT),然后采用1μlofAβ1～40(10μg/μl)立体定位单侧海马内注射建立AD动物模型,通过水迷宫实验检测动物模型的学习、记忆能力;免疫组化检测MAPK蛋白表达情况。结果ERT组AD动物模型的水迷宫逃避潜伏期较OVX组明显缩短(P<0.05),同时ERT组AD动物模型的海马CA1、CA3区的MAPK表达上调(P<0.05)。结论雌激素可以改善AD动物模型的认知功能,其神经保护作用可能与上调海马MAPK表达有关。     

脑室注射链脲佐菌素对大鼠空间学习记忆能力及海马CA1区神经元数量和海马突触素表达的影响

为了观察脑室内注射链脲佐菌素(streptozotocin,STZ)对大鼠空间学习记忆能力的影响,分析其可能的内在机制,本实验选用40只SD大鼠随机分成对照组和模型组,模型组于第1 d和第3 d脑室注射STZ(总量3 mg/kg)建立Alzheimer病(AD)模型,15 d后进行Morris水迷宫试验,利用RT-PCR方法检测突触素(synaptophysin,SYP)mRNA的表达变化;Nissl染色观察海马结构的改变。结果显示:与对照组相比,脑室注射STZ后大鼠平均上台潜伏期明显延长,穿越平台次数明显减少,靶象限游泳时间的百分比降低,SYP mRNA的表达明显减少,Nissl染色见海马CA1区神经元减少。以上结果提示脑室注射STZ可损伤大鼠的空间学习记忆能力,这可能与海马CA1区神经元和突触结构的损伤有关。     

苯丙胺对大鼠行为、学习能力及海马CA3区突触素表达的影响

目的观察苯丙胺对大鼠行为、空间辨别性学习能力和海马CA3区突触素表达的影响。方法将45只健康雄性SD大鼠随机分为:正常对照组、生理盐水组和苯丙胺组。①苯丙胺组每天肌注0.5mg/kg苯丙胺1次;②生理盐水组即注射等体积生理盐水;③正常对照组不予任何处理。每组大鼠分14d、28d和42d三个时间段进行一般行为学、学习记忆能力及海马CA3区突触素表达的检测。结果①苯丙胺组大鼠在注射苯丙胺10d后出现直立、点头、狂躁等行为改变。正常对照组、生理盐水组均无此现象出现;②苯丙胺组大鼠空间辨别性学习记忆能力的影响,在第1、2个时间段与对照组的比未见组间差异,在第3时间段的平均运行时间和正确率比对照组的延长和降低(P<0.05)。③苯丙胺组大鼠海马CA3区突触素表达在第一阶段比对照组的减少,并随着用药时间的延长减少的更明显(P<0.05)。结论苯丙胺对空间辨别性学习记忆时大鼠行为及海马CA3区突触素表达有影响。     

Opportunities and challenges in the prevention and control of cancer and other chronic diseases: children's diet and nutrition and weight and physical activity

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to review the role of behavioral research in disease prevention and control, with a particular emphasis on lifestyle- and behavior-related cancer and chronic disease risk factors--specifically, relationships among diet and nutrition and weight and physical activity with adult cancer, and tracking developmental origins of these health-promoting and health-compromising behaviors from childhood into adulthood. METHOD: After reviewing the background of the field of cancer prevention and control and establishing plausibility for the role of child health behavior in adult cancer risk, studies selected from the pediatric published literature are reviewed. Articles were retrieved, selected, and summarized to illustrate that results from separate but related fields of study are combinable to yield insights into the prevention and control of cancer and other chronic diseases in adulthood through the conduct of nonintervention and intervention research with children in clinical, public health, and other contexts. RESULTS: As illustrated by the evidence presented in this review, there are numerous reasons (biological, psychological, and social), opportunities (school and community, health care, and family settings), and approaches (nonintervention and intervention) to understand and impact behavior change in children's diet and nutrition and weight and physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Further development and evaluation of behavioral science intervention protocols conducted with children are necessary to understand the efficacy of these approaches and their public health impact on proximal and distal cancer, cancer-related, and chronic disease outcomes before diffusion. It is clear that more attention should be paid to early life and early developmental phases in cancer prevention.     

Pain and Effusion and Quadriceps Activation and Strength

Context:

Quadriceps dysfunction is a common consequence of knee joint injury and disease, yet its causes remain elusive.

Objective:

To determine the effects of pain on quadriceps strength and activation and to learn if simultaneous pain and knee joint effusion affect the magnitude of quadriceps dysfunction.

Design:

Crossover study.

Setting:

University research laboratory.

Patients or Other Participants:

Fourteen (8 men, 6 women; age = 23.6 ± 4.8 years, height = 170.3 ± 9.16 cm, mass = 72.9 ± 11.84 kg) healthy volunteers.

Intervention(s):

All participants were tested under 4 randomized conditions: normal knee, effused knee, painful knee, and effused and painful knee.

Main Outcome Measure(s):

Quadriceps strength (Nm/kg) and activation (central activation ratio) were assessed after each condition was induced.

Results:

Quadriceps strength and activation were highest under the normal knee condition and differed from the 3 experimental knee conditions (P < .05). No differences were noted among the 3 experimental knee conditions for either variable (P > .05).

Conclusions:

Both pain and effusion led to quadriceps dysfunction, but the interaction of the 2 stimuli did not increase the magnitude of the strength or activation deficits. Therefore, pain and effusion can be considered equally potent in eliciting quadriceps inhibition. Given that pain and effusion accompany numerous knee conditions, the prevalence of quadriceps dysfunction is likely high.Key Words: arthrogenic muscle inhibition, central activation failure, voluntary activation, muscles

Key Points

• Knee pain and effusion resulted in arthrogenic muscle inhibition and weakness of the quadriceps.
• The simultaneous presence of pain and effusion did not increase the magnitude of quadriceps dysfunction.
• To reduce arthrogenic muscle inhibition and improve muscle strength, clinicians should employ interventions that target removing both pain and effusion.

Quadriceps weakness is a common consequence of traumatic knee joint injury^1,2 and chronic degenerative knee joint conditions.^3,4 Arthrogenic muscle inhibition (AMI), a neurologic decline in muscle activation, results in quadriceps weakness and hinders rehabilitation by preventing gains in strength.⁵ The inability to reverse AMI and restore muscle function can lead to decreased physical abilities,⁶ biomechanical deficits,⁷ and possibly reinjury.⁵ Furthermore, researchers^8,9 have suggested that quadriceps weakness resulting from AMI may place patients at risk for developing osteoarthritis in the knee. In light of the substantial influence of quadriceps AMI on these clinically relevant outcomes, we need to improve our understanding of the factors that contribute to this neurologic decline in muscle activity so efforts to target and reverse it can be implemented and gains in strength can be achieved more easily.Joint injury and disease are accompanied by numerous sequelae (ie, pain, swelling, tissue damage, inflammation), so ascertaining which one ultimately leads to neurologic muscle dysfunction is difficult. Whereas a joint effusion can result in AMI,^10–12 the effects of pain are less understood despite many clinicians attributing AMI to pain. Using techniques that introduce knee pain without accompanying injury may provide insights into the role of pain in eliciting AMI.The degree of knee joint damage may play a role in the quantity of AMI that manifests. Hurley et al^13,14 demonstrated that quadriceps AMI, measured using an interpolated-twitch technique, was greater in patients with extensive traumatic knee injury (eg, fractured tibial plateau, ruptured medial collateral ligament, and medial meniscectomy) than patients with isolated joint trauma (ie, isolated anterior cruciate ligament [ACL] rupture). Similarly, patients with more knee joint symptoms (ie, greater number of symptoms and increased severity of symptoms) may present with greater magnitudes of quadriceps inhibition. Recently, investigators¹⁵ have suggested that patients with more pain display less quadriceps strength, supporting this tenet. Given that effusion and pain often present simultaneously with joint injuries and diseases, such as ACL injury and osteoarthritis, examining both the isolated and cumulative effects of these sequelae appears warranted to determine if they influence the magnitude of muscle inhibition.Experimental joint-effusion and pain models are safe and effective experimental methods that allow for the isolated examination of their effects on muscle function. The effusion model, whereby sterile saline is injected directly into the knee joint capsule,⁷ produces a clinically relevant magnitude of the joint effusion that may be present with traumatic injury. Effusion is thought to activate group II afferents responding to stretch or pressure,^16–18 which in turn may facilitate group Ib interneurons and result in quadriceps AMI.⁵ The pain model involves injecting hypertonic saline into the infrapatellar fat pad to produce anteromedial knee pain similar to that described in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome.¹⁹ Pain is considered to initiate AMI through activation of group III and IV afferents that act as nocioceptors to signal damage or potential damage to joint structures.^16–18 The firing of these afferents then may lead to facilitation of group Ib interneurons, the flexion reflex, or the gamma loop, ultimately resulting in quadriceps inhibition.²⁰ Thus, these models allow us to create symptoms that are associated with knee injury and have the added benefit of providing a way to examine their effects in isolation.Therefore, the purpose of our study was to determine the effects of pain on quadriceps strength and activation and to learn if simultaneous pain and knee joint effusion would affect the magnitude of quadriceps dysfunction. We hypothesized that pain alone would result in quadriceps inhibition and that the magnitude of inhibition would be greater when effusion and pain were present simultaneously.     

Postinfectious immunodeficiency and autoimmunity: pathogenic and clinical values and implications

Autoimmunity is still a mystery of clinical immunology and medicine as a whole. The etiology and pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders remain unclear and, thus, are assessed as a balance between hereditary predisposition, triggering factors and the appearance of autoantibodies and/or self-reactive T cells. Among the immunological armamentarium, molecular mimicry, based on self-reactive T- and B-cell activation by cross-reactive epitopes of infectious agents, is of special value. Hypotheses regarding the possible involvement of molecular mimicry in the development of postinfectious autoimmunity are currently very intriguing. They provide new approaches for identifying etiological agents that are associated with postinfectious autoimmunity, paired microbial- and tissue-linked epitopes targeted for autoimmune reaction determination, postinfectious autoimmunity pathogenesis recognition and specific prevention, and therapy for autoimmune disorder development.     

Beta-endorphin and drug-induced reward and reinforcement

Although drugs of abuse have different acute mechanisms of action, their brain pathways of reward exhibit common functional effects upon both acute and chronic administration. Long known for its analgesic effect, the opioid beta-endorphin is now shown to induce euphoria, and to have rewarding and reinforcing properties. In this review, we will summarize the present neurobiological and behavioral evidences that support involvement of beta-endorphin in drug-induced reward and reinforcement. Currently, evidence supports a prominent role for beta-endorphin in the reward pathways of cocaine and alcohol. The existing information indicating the importance of beta-endorphin neurotransmission in mediating the reward pathways of nicotine and THC, is thus far circumstantial. The studies described herein employed diverse techniques, such as biochemical measurements of beta-endorphin in various brain sites and plasma, and behavioral measurements, conducted following elimination (via administration of anti-beta-endorphin antibodies or using mutant mice) or augmentation (by intracerebral administration) of beta-endorphin. We suggest that the reward pathways for different addictive drugs converge to a common pathway in which beta-endorphin is a modulating element. beta-Endorphin is involved also with distress. However, reviewing the data collected so far implies a discrete role, beyond that of a stress response, for beta-endorphin in mediating the substance of abuse reward pathway. This may occur via interacting with the mesolimbic dopaminergic system and also by its interesting effects on learning and memory. The functional meaning of beta-endorphin in the process of drug-seeking behavior is discussed.     

PTEN与信号转导及肿瘤

ＴＥＮ[1] (ｐｈｏｓｐｈａｔａｓｅａｎｄｔｅｎｓｉｎｈｏｍｏｌｏｇｙｄｅｌｅｔｅｄｏｎｃｈｒｏｍｏｓｏｍｅｔｅｎ)又名ＭＭＡＣ1 [2 ] (ｍｕｔａｔｅｄｉｎｍｕｔｉｐｌｙａｄａｎｃｅｄｃａｎｃｅｒ 1 )和ＴＥＰ1 [3 ] (ＴＧＦ -βｒｅｇｕｌａｔｅｄａｎｄｅｐｉｔｈｅｌｉａｌｃｅｌｌ -ｒｉｃｈｅｄｐｈｏｓｐｈａｔａｓｅ 1 ) (以下均称为ＰＴＥＮ) ,是 1 997年由 3个研究小组先后发现的一个具有双特异磷酸酶活性的抑癌基因。ＰＴＥＮ基因异常广泛存在于人类多种恶性肿瘤 ,如恶性神经胶质瘤、前列腺癌、子宫内膜癌、黑色素瘤等…     

Tobacco and alcohol and the risk of head and neck cancer

Summary We carried out two case-control studies on the relative risk of head and neck cancer in association with tobacco and alcohol consumption. The first study carried out at the ENT Department of the University hospitals of Heidelberg and Giessen (FRG) comprised 200 male patients with squamous cell cancer of the head and neck and 800 control subjects matched for sex, age, and residential area (1:4 matching design). Of the tumour patients, 4.5% had never smoked, in contrast to 29.5% of the control group. The average tobacco and alcohol consumption of the patients was approximately twice as high as in the control subjects. The highest alcohol and tobacco consumption was observed in patients suffering from oropharyngeal cancer. Tobacco and alcohol increased the risk of head and neck cancer in a dose-dependent fashion and acted as independent risk factors. In heavy smokers (> 60 pack-years) a relative risk of 23.4 (alcohol adjusted) was calculated. Combined alcohol and tobacco consumption showed a synergistic effect. The risk ratio increased more in a multiplicative than in an additive manner. Oral and laryngeal cancer were associated with the highest tobacco-associated risk values. The highest ethanol-associated risk values were associated with oropharyngeal and laryngeal cancer. The second study was carried out at the ENT Department of the University of Heidelberg on 164 males with squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx and 656 control subjects matched for sex, age and residential area (1:4 matching design). Of the cases, 4.2% had never smoked, compared with 28.5% of the control subjects. The risk of laryngeal cancer by tobacco consumption was dose dependent, reaching a maximum value of 9.1 (adjusted for alcohol) for a consumption of more than 50 tobacco-years (TY). The relative risk of laryngeal cancer associated with alcohol intake was also dose dependent, reaching a value of 9.0 (adjusted for tobacco) for a mean daily consumption of more than 75 g alcohol. An analysis of subsite specific risks showed that heavy smokers (> 50 TY) carried a nearly ten times higher risk of supraglottic cancer than of glottic cancer. The risk of supraglottic cancer from alcohol consumption was also higher than that of glottic cancer.     

Muscle strength and serum testosterone,cortisol and SHBG concentrations in middle-aged and elderly men and women

Forty healthy males (M) and females (F) divided into two different age groups i.e. M50 years (range 44–57; n= 9), F50 years (range 43–54; n= 9), M70 years (range 64–73; n= 11) and F70 years (range 63–73; n= 11) volunteered as subjects for examination of muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and maximal voluntary isometric force production characteristics of the leg extensor muscles and serum androgen and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations. The CSA in the male groups was greatly larger (P < 0.01) than in the female groups and both elderly groups demonstrated slightly (n.s.) smaller values in the CSA than the two middle-aged groups. Maximal force of 2854 ± 452 N in M50 was greater (P < 0.05) than that of 2627 ± 752 N recorded for F50 as well as the force of 2787 ± 843 in M70 was greater (P < 0.001) than that of 1849 ± 295 recorded for F70. The force between F50 and F70 differed significantly (P < 0.05) from each other. The maximal rate of force production in M50 was greater (P < 0.01) than in F50 as well as in M70 greater (P < 0.001) than in F70. Both middle-aged groups demonstrated greater (P < 0.05) values than the respective elderly groups of the same sex. The individual values in the CSA correlated with the values in maximal force both in the middle-aged subjects (r= 0.66; P < 0.01) and in the elderly subjects (r= 0.69; P < 0.01). The mean concentration of serum testosterone in M50 was slightly (n.s.) greater than in M70 and in F50 significantly (P < 0.05) greater than in F70. Serum SHBG levels were lower in the males (P < 0.01) than in the females and serum testosterone/SHBG ratio in M70 and in F70 were lower (P < 0.05) than in M50 and in F50, respectively. In the females significant positive correlations were observed between the individual values in serum testosterone concentration and the values both in the CSA (r= 0.46; P < 0.05) and in maximal force (r= 0.62; P < 0.01) as well as between serum testosterone/SHBG ratio and both the CSA (r= 0.55; P < 0.05) and maximal force (r= 0.68; P < 0.01). The present results imply that the decreasing basal level of blood testosterone over the years in aging people, especially in females, may lead to decreasing anabolic effects on muscles thus having an association with age-related declines in the maximal voluntary neuromuscular performance capacity in aging people.     

Platelet-activating factor receptor and respiratory and metabolic responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia

Activation of the platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) regulates neural transmission. A PAFR blocker reduced the peak hypoxic (pHVR) but not hypercapnic ventilatory (HCVR) responses in rats [Am. J. Physiol. 275 (1998) R604]. To further examine the role of PAFR in respiratory control, genotype-verified PAFR -/- and PAFR +/+ adult male mice underwent hypoxic and hypercapnic challenges. HCVR was similar in the two groups (p-NS). However, pHVR was significantly reduced in PAFR -/- mice (38 +/- 13% baseline [S.D.]) compared to PAFR +/+ mice (78 +/- 16% baseline; P < 0.001, ANOVA), with reduced tidal volume recruitments during pHVR. In addition, hypoxic ventilatory depression was attenuated in PAFR -/- mice (P < 0.01), and was primarily due to attenuation of the time-dependent decreases in oxygen consumption during sustained hypoxia (P < 0.01). Thus, PAFR expression/function modulates components of the acute ventilatory and metabolic adaptations to hypoxia but not to hypercapnia. Imbalances in PAFR activity may lead to maladaptive regulation of the tightly controlled metabolic-ventilatory relationships during hypoxia.