L－缬氨酸菌种选育

以硫酸二乙酯（ＤＥＳ）诱变处理黄色短杆菌（Ｂｒｅｖｉｂａｃｔｅｒｉｕｍｆｌａｖｕｍ）ＸＱ５１２２，得到突变株Ｖ３－３６＜Ｌｅｕ￣１、α－ＡＢ￣ｒ、ＡＨＶ￣ｒ），在１０％葡萄糖培养基中可积累２．３％Ｌ－缬氨酸。以亚硝基胍（ＮＴＧ）诱变Ｖ４－１５３，得到一株突变株（Ｌｅｕ￣１、α－ＡＢ￣ｒ、ＡＨＶ￣ｒ、２－ＴＡ￣ｒ），再进行单菌落分离，得到突变株ＺＱ－２，能在培养基中积累Ｌ－缬氨酸４．２％～４．５％，最高达５．５７％．     

多重抗药性突变株中α－淀粉酶高产菌株选育

以解淀粉芽孢杆菌（Ｂａｃｉｌｌｕｓａｍｙｌｏｌｉｑｅｆａｃｉｅｎｓ）Ａ－４为出发菌株，经诱变处理，选育多重抗药性突变株。研究结果表明，抗药性突变株α－淀粉酶产量提高的正变率和正变幅度明显大于非抗药性突变株，负变率和负变幅度也较高。经ＮＴＧ和ＮＴＧ－ＵＶ诱变处理，获得一株林可霉素、Ｄ－环丝氨酸和万古霉素多重抗性突变株ＬＣＶ＿５（Ｌｉｎ￣ｒ，Ｃｓ￣ｒ，Ｖｍ￣ｒ），其α－淀粉酶活力比出发菌株Ａ－４提高３２．５％，发酵周期短，摇瓶为４０ｈ，酶活力达４６１ｕ／ｍｌ．     

光度法直接测定钨合金中钍

研究了钨合金中钍的直接测定方法。在１．０ｍｏｌ／Ｌ硝酸和０．０８ｍｏｌ／Ｌ柠檬酸介质中，钍与３－［（２－羟基－３－羧基－５－磺基苯基）偶氮］－６－［（２－胂酸基苯基）偶氮］－４，５二羟基－２，７－萘二磺酸（ＡＳＡ－ＨＫＳ）发生灵敏的显色反应。钍与试剂形成１２绿色配合物，最大吸收波长为６７５ｎｍ，表观摩尔吸光系数为８．５４×１０４Ｌ／（ｍｏｌｃｍ）。钍含量在０～１．２ｍｇ／Ｌ范围内符合比耳定律。该方法的选择性是目前测定钍方法中较理想的，结果令人满意。     

体外免疫吸附对狼疮肾炎的治疗和保护作用

目的　观察体外免疫吸附（ＥＩＡ） 对狼疮肾炎（ＬＮ） 的治疗和肾脏保护作用。方法　比较树脂型ＥＩＡ、大剂量激素和ＣＴＸ联合治疗（ 简称ＥＩＡ组）与大剂量激素和ＣＴＸ治疗（ 简称对照组） 血ＩｇＧ、ＡＮＡ、ｄｓＤＮＡ、Ｃ３、２４ 小时尿蛋白、ＢＵＮ、Ｓｃｒ 及其他临床指标的变化。结果　治疗２ 周时,ＥＩＡ组血ＩｇＧ、ＡＮＡ、ｄｓＤＮＡ显著低于对照组［ 两组分别为ＩｇＧ（１０－０３ ±２－９１） 、（１３－５４ ±３－０５）ｇ／Ｌ,ＡＮＡ（１４－００ ±１３－１４）、（３１－８２ ±３０－０２）ｔｉｔｅｒ－ １,ｄｓＤＮＡ（８－３０ ±４－８３） 、（２７－００ ±１８－５１） ％］ 。Ｃ３ 显著回升［ 两组分别为（５８７－３±９７－０３） 、（４８１－５±１３２－０４）ｍｇ／Ｌ］,２４ 小时尿蛋白、ＢＵＮ、Ｓｃｒ 显著低于对照组［ 两组分别为２４ 小时尿蛋白（２－２８±２－０７） 、（５－９８ ±３－３４）ｇ／２４ｈ,ＢＵＮ（９－１７ ±２－８３）、（１５－２９ ±５－３８）ｍｍｏｌ／Ｌ、Ｓｃｒ（１５６－７５ ±８９－３３）、（２４７－１４±７４－６９）μｍｏｌ／Ｌ） 。治疗４ 周时,ＥＩＡ 组血ＩｇＧ、ｄｓＤＮＡ 仍低于对照组［ 两组分别为Ｉｇ     

环孢素及山莨菪碱对肝细胞游离钙的影响

分离ＳＤ大鼠肝细胞，负载荧光钙指示剂Ｆｕｒａ－２／ＡＭ后以无钙Ｈａｎｋｓ液悬浮，分别以入以下试剂：１．二甲亚砜。２．环孢素（ＣｓＡ）１ｍｇ／Ｌ。３．ＧｓＡ１０ｍｇ／Ｌ。４．ＣｓＡ１０ｍｇ／Ｌ，山莨菪碱１０ｍｇ／Ｌ。５．ＣｓＡ１０ｍｇ／Ｌ，山莨菪碱４０ｍｇ／Ｌ。测定肝细胞内游离钙发现ＣｓＡ可增加肝细胞内游离钙，为剂量依赖性，山莨菪可部分拮抗ＣｓＡ引起的升钙作用。     

雌二醇及孕酮对离体子宫内膜腺体和基质细胞合成前列腺素的影响

为了研究甾体激素对子宫内膜合成前列腺素（ＰＧＳ）的影响，采用雌二醇（Ｅ２）１０－８ｍｏｌ／Ｌ和孕酮（Ｐ４）１０－７ｍｏｌ／Ｌ培养增生晚期（ｎ＝７）和分泌晚期（ｎ＝５）子宫内膜的分离腺体和基质细胞。结果表明，Ｅ２１０－８／Ｌ和Ｅ２１０－８ｍｏｌ／Ｌ＋Ｐ４１Ｏ－７ｍｏｌ／Ｌ刺激增生晚期的子宫内膜腺体细胞产生ＰＧＦ２α明显增加，对分泌晚期子宫内膜腺体细胞以及增生晚期和分泌晚期子宫内膜基质细胞均无明显影响。ＰＧＥ２，水平不受甾体激素的影响。     

骨肉瘤大剂量甲氨喋呤化疗的血清药物浓度监测

测定骨肉瘤大剂量甲氨喋呤（ｍｅｔｈｏｔｒｅｘａｔｅＭＴＸ）化疗４２例次，化疗方案分两组，第一组ＭＴＸ剂量为２００ｍｇ／ｋｇ，静脉滴注时间为２、４、６小时；第二组静脉滴注时间为６小时，ＭＴＸ剂量为２００ｍｇ／ｋｇ、３００ｍｇ／ｋｇ、４００ｍｇ／ｋｇ、５００ｍｇ／ｋｇ。结果表明，零时血清药物浓度随滴注时间的延长而下降，为６．２×１０－４ｍｏｌ／Ｌ，５．１×１０－４ｍｏｌ／Ｌ、５．０×１０－４ｍｏｌ／Ｌ，各时间组之间无显著性差异；零时血清药物浓度随ＭＴＸ剂量增加而显著增高，为５．０×１０－４ｍｏｌ／Ｌ、７．７×１０－４ｍｏｌ／Ｌ、１．１×１０－３ｍｏｌ／Ｌ、２．７×１０－３ｍｏｌ／Ｌ。零时血清药物浓度越高，血清药物浓度下降速度越快，２４小时为１×１０－６ｍｏｌ／Ｌ左右，２４小时以后，下降速度缓慢，至７２小时为１×１０－７ｍｏｌ／Ｌ左右。２４小时以后的血清药物浓度差异不大     

阿法D3防治绝经后骨质疏松症的临床研究

应用阿法Ｄ３防治绝经后骨质疏松症２４例。年龄６０．５３±６．６岁，绝经年龄４８．６±１０．９岁。阿法Ｄ３０．２５μｇＢｉｄ，钙剂（乳酸钙）日５００ｍｇ元素钙，疗程半年。结果：血ＡＬＰ、尿ＨＹＰ／Ｃｒ，尿Ｃａ／Ｃｒ，尿Ｃａ／Ｃｒ用药后明显下降。Ｌ２－４ＢＭＤ轻度增高。骨痛改善率５９．３％。以上骨癌症状消失，Ｌ２－４ＢＭＤ改善的总疗效为９０．５％。其中６例手足肌肉痉挛者５例症状消失，１例明显减轻。全组血尿常规，肝肾功能，肾脏Ｂ超于用药后均未见异常。未出现高血钙，不良反应轻微。表明阿法Ｄ３是防治绝经后骨质疏松症安全有效的药物。     

大剂量升压药抢救大出血一例报告

患者．男，６８岁，体重５８ｋｇ，因脑膜瘤入院。术前检查：血压１６／１０ｋＰａ，血红蛋白１５２ｇ／Ｌ；ＥＣＧ示窦性心律，心率８０次／分，Ｓ－Ｔ在Ⅱ、Ⅲ、ａｖＦ、Ｖ３～６导联中均下移；血清钾３．８ｍｍｏｌ／Ｌ、钠１２４．４ｍｍｏｌ／Ｌ、氯９５．６ｍｍｏｌ／Ｌ；头颅ＣＴ示：大脑镰左侧脑膜瘤。麻醉经过术前肌注阿托品０．４ｍｇ，入室行ＥＣＧ及生命体征监测，血压２２／１２ｋＰａ、心率１００次／分。开放两条液路，安定１０ｍｇ、冬眠Ⅰ号２ｍｌ、２５％－ＯＨ１４．５ｍｌ、２．５％硫喷妥钠９ｍｌ分别分次静脉滴入，咽…     

过度换气对犬肺循环及血栓素前列环素平衡的影响

观察１５只正常犬在自主呼吸、正常机械通气、过度换气、纠正呼碱及注射消炎痛等五个阶段中肺循环改变及ＴＸＢ２、６－ｋｅｔｏ－ＰＧＦ（１α）改变情况，并探讨其相互间的关系。结果表明：过度换气可降低正常犬肺动脉压［２．７６５±０．７９１／２．５５１±０．６５０ｋＰａ（１ｋＰａ＝７．５ｍｍＨｇ），Ｐ＜０．００１］及心输出量（２．３２９±０．７８０／２．１３１±０．６３３Ｌ／ｍｉｎ，Ｐ＜０．０５），且二者间显著相关（ｒ＝０．６１９２，Ｐ＜０．０２）；呼吸频率改变引起过度换气时ＴＸＡ２水平无变化，而ＰＧＩ２由３３．４±１８．２ｐｇ／ｍｌ上升４７．８±１９．４ｐｇ／ｍｌ（Ｐ＜０．０５），ＴＸＡ２／ＰＧＩ２降低（４．４８±２．２０／２．６６±１．７１，Ｐ＜０．００５），但这些变化与正常肺过度换气时肺动脉压的下降无相关关系（ｒ＝０．２０２２，Ｐ＞０．０５）；呼吸性碱中毒对ＰＧＩ２合成和释放亦无影响。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.