Racial discrimination,racial/ethnic segregation,and health behaviors in the CARDIA study

Objective

Racial discrimination has been associated with unhealthy behaviors, but the mechanisms responsible for these associations are not understood and may be related to residential racial segregation. We investigated associations between self-reported racial discrimination and health behaviors before and after controlling for individual- and neighborhood-level characteristics; and potential effect modification of these associations by segregation.

Design

We used data from the longitudinal Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study for 1169 African-Americans and 1322 whites. To assess racial discrimination, we used a four category variable to capture the extent and persistence of self-reported discrimination between examination at years 7 (1992–1993) and 15 (2000–2001). We assessed smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity at year 20 (2005–2006). Segregation was examined as the racial/ethnic composition at the Census tract level.

Results

Discrimination was more common in African-Americans (89.1%) than in whites (40.0%). Living in areas with high percentage of blacks was associated with less reports of discrimination in African-Americans but more reports in whites. After adjustment for selected characteristics including individual- and neighborhood-level socioeconomic conditions and segregation, we found significant positive associations of discrimination with smoking and alcohol consumption in African-Americans and with smoking in whites. African-Americans experiencing moderate or high discrimination were more physically active than those reporting no discrimination. Whites reporting some discrimination were also more physically active than those reporting no discrimination. We observed no interactions between discrimination and segregation measures in African-Americans or whites for any of the three health behaviors.

Conclusions

Racial discrimination may impact individuals' adoption of healthy and unhealthy behaviors independent of racial/ethnic segregation. These behaviors may help individuals buffer or reduce the stress of discrimination.     

Neighborhoods and racial/ethnic differences in ideal cardiovascular health (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis)

Using data from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis baseline sample from 2000 to 2002 (N=5263; mean age=62) we examined cross-sectional racial/ethnic differences in ideal CVH, defined by the American Heart Association 2020 Impact Goals as a summary measure of ideal levels of blood pressure, fasting glucose, cholesterol, body mass index, diet, physical activity, and smoking. Using three different analytical approaches, we examined differences before and after adjustment for neighborhood socioeconomic, physical, and social environments. Significant racial/ethnic differences were present for all indicators of ideal CVH (excluding physical activity). Additional adjustments for neighborhood factors produced modest reductions in racial/ethnic differences. Future research is necessary to better understand the impact of neighborhood context on health disparities using longitudinal study designs.     

Association of socioeconomic status with inflammation markers in black and white men and women in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study

Inflammatory processes are implicated in a number of diseases for which there are known socioeconomic status (SES) disparities, including heart disease and diabetes. Growing evidence also suggests SES gradients in levels of peripheral blood markers of inflammation. However, we know little about potential gender and racial/ethnic differences in associations between SES and inflammation, despite the fact that the burden of inflammation-related diseases varies by gender and race. The present study examines SES (education and income) gradients in levels of two inflammatory biomarkers, C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), in a biethnic (White and Black) sample of men and women (n = 3549, aged 37–55 years) in the USA from the CARDIA Study. Health status, behavioral and psychosocial variables that may underlie SES differences in inflammatory biomarker levels were also examined. Age-adjusted CRP and IL-6 levels were inversely associated with education level in each race/gender group except Black males. Income gradients were also observed in each race/gender group for IL-6 and in White females and males for CRP. In general, differences in CRP and IL-6 levels between low and high SES groups were reduced in magnitude and significance with the addition of health status, behavioral, and psychosocial variables, although the impact of the addition of model covariates varied across race/gender groups and different SES-inflammation models. Overall, findings indicate SES gradients in levels of inflammation burden in middle-aged White and Black males and females.     

Relationship of neighborhood social determinants of health on racial/ethnic mortality disparities in US veterans—Mediation and moderating effects

Objective

To examine mediation and moderation of racial/ethnic all-cause mortality disparities among Veteran Health Administration (VHA)-users by neighborhood deprivation and residential segregation.

Data sources

Electronic medical records for 10/2008-9/2009 VHA-users linked to National Death Index, 2000 Area Deprivation Index, and 2006-2009 US Census.

Study design

Racial/ethnic groups included American Indian/Alaskan Native (AI/AN), Asian, non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, and non-Hispanic white (reference). We measured neighborhood deprivation by Area Deprivation Index, calculated segregation for non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, and AI/AN using the Isolation Index, evaluated mediation using inverse odds-weighted Cox regression models and moderation using Cox regression models testing for neighborhood*race/ethnicity interactions.

Principal findings

Mortality disparities existed for AI/ANs (HR = 1.07, 95%CI:1.01-1.10) but no other groups after covariate adjustment. Neighborhood deprivation and Hispanic segregation neither mediated nor moderated AI/AN disparities. Non-Hispanic black segregation both mediated and moderated AI/AN disparities. The AI/AN vs. non-Hispanic white disparity was attenuated for AI/ANs living in neighborhoods with greater non-Hispanic black segregation (P = .047). Black segregation's mediating effect was limited to VHA-users living in counties with low black segregation. AI/AN segregation also mediated AI/AN mortality disparities in counties that included or were near AI/AN reservations.

Conclusions

Neighborhood characteristics, particularly black and AI/AN residential segregation, may contribute to AI/AN mortality disparities among VHA-users, particularly in communities that were rural, had greater black segregation, or were located on or near AI/AN reservations. This suggests the importance of neighborhood social determinants of health on racial/ethnic mortality disparities. Living near reservations may allow AI/AN VHA-users to maintain cultural and tribal ties, while also providing them with access to economic and other resources. Future research should explore the experiences of AI/ANs living in black communities and underlying mechanisms to identify targets for intervention.

     

Changes in racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes by obesity level among US adults

Objective. Ethnic minority status and obesity are two independent risk factors for Type 2 diabetes (T2D). There is no clear understanding of how they may have interacted and influenced disparities in T2D prevalence over time. This study examined the trends in racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of T2D by weight status among US adults.

Methods. We used nationally representative data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys I (1971–1975), II (1976–1980), and III (1988–1994), and 1999–2004 among 49,574 adults aged 20–74 years. The prevalences of diagnosed and undiagnosed T2D were estimated by race/ethnicity groups (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and Mexican American) and body mass index (BMI) groups (normal, 18.5–24.9; overweight, 25–29.9; obese, 30–34.9; severely obese, ≥35). We used logistic regression controlling for age, gender, and education to estimate the odds ratio of T2D across race/ethnicity and BMI groups.

Results. Trends in racial/ethnic disparities in prevalence of diagnosed T2D varied by BMI. Normal weight group saw increasing racial disparities. In the overweight group, ethnic disparities worsened as diabetes prevalence increased 33.3% in Whites, compared to 60.0% in Blacks, and 227.3% in Mexican Americans. Minimal racial/ethnic disparities were observed in obese and severely obese groups over time. In contrast to diagnosed diabetes, overall racial/ethnic disparities in undiagnosed T2D declined in all BMI groups.

Conclusions. Racial/ethnic disparities in diabetes prevalence have become most pronounced among normal and overweight groups. Eliminating racial/ethnic disparities in diabetes will require prevention efforts not only in obese minority individuals, but also in normal and overweight minority individuals.     

Male-female differences in the association between socioeconomic status and atherosclerotic risk in adolescents

Recent work suggests that the association between socioeconomic status and coronary heart disease may be stronger in adult women than in men. This paper evaluates a parallel to these findings in adolescence (aged 12-17) by examining male-female differences in the association between family income and markers of atherosclerosis in the 1999-2004 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. We found that moving from the 25th to 75th income percentile is associated with up to a 5.4% greater reduction in the probability of low HDL-C in females compared to males, and a 4.5% greater reduction in the probability of high C-reactive protein. No associations are found between income and LDL-C in either sex. A stronger income-adiposity association in females explains part of the C-reactive protein result, but not the HDL-C result. The implications of these findings are discussed in the context of lifecourse development of coronary heart disease and related health policy.     

The association between care experiences and parent ratings of care for different racial, ethnic, and language groups in a Medicaid population

Objective. To examine the association between care experiences and parent ratings of care within racial/ethnic/language subgroups. Data Source. National Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems Benchmarking Database 3.0 (2003–2006). Sample Characteristics. 111,139 parents of minor Medicaid managed care enrollees. Study Design. Cross‐sectional observational study predicting “poor” (0–5 on 0–10 scale) parent ratings of personal doctor, specialist, health care, and health plan from care experiences for different parent race/ethnicity/language subgroups (Latino/Spanish, Latino/English, white, and black). Principal Findings. Care experiences had similar associations with the probability of poor parent ratings of care across the four racial/ethnic/language subgroups (p>.20). A one standard deviation improvement in the doctor communication care experience was associated with about half the frequency of poor ratings of care for personal doctor and health care in all subgroups (p<.05). Sensitivity analysis of individual communication items found that failure to provide explanations to children predicted poor ratings of care only among whites, who also weighed the length of physician interaction more heavily than other subgroups. Conclusions. Communication‐based interventions may improve experiences and ratings of care for all subgroups, although implementation of these interventions may need to consider preferences associated with race, ethnicity, and language.     

The contribution of biogeographical ancestry and socioeconomic status to racial/ethnic disparities in type 2 diabetes mellitus: results from the Boston Area Community Health Survey

PurposeRacial/ethnic disparities in the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are well documented, and many researchers have proposed that biogeographical ancestry (BGA) may play a role in these disparities. However, studies examining the role of BGA on T2DM have produced mixed results to date. Therefore, the objective of this research was to quantify the contribution of BGA to racial/ethnic disparities in T2DM incidence controlling for the mediating influences of socioeconomic factors.MethodsWe analyzed data from the Boston Area Community Health Survey, a prospective cohort with approximately equal numbers of black, Hispanic, and white participants. We used 63 ancestry-informative markers to calculate the percentages of participants with West African and Native American ancestry. We used logistic regression with G-computation to analyze the contribution of BGA and socioeconomic factors to racial/ethnic disparities in T2DM incidence.ResultsWe found that socioeconomic factors accounted for 44.7% of the total effect of T2DM attributed to black race and 54.9% of the effect attributed to Hispanic ethnicity. We found that BGA had almost no direct association with T2DM and was almost entirely mediated by self-identified race/ethnicity and socioeconomic factors.ConclusionsIt is likely that nongenetic factors, specifically socioeconomic factors, account for much of the reported racial/ethnic disparities in T2DM incidence.     

The association between discrimination and PTSD in African Americans: exploring the role of gender

ABSTRACT

Background: Research has demonstrated the adverse impact that discrimination has on physical and mental health. However, few studies have examined the association between discrimination and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is evidence that African Americans experience higher rates of PTSD and are more likely to develop PTSD following trauma exposure than Whites, and discrimination may be one reason for this disparity.

Purpose: To examine the association between discrimination and PTSD among a cross-sectional sample largely comprising African American women, controlling for other psychosocial stressors (psychological distress, neighborhood safety, crime).

Methods: A sample of 806 participants was recruited from two low-income predominantly African American neighborhoods. Participants completed self-report measures of PTSD symptoms, perceived discrimination, perceived safety, and psychological distress. Information on neighborhood crime was obtained through data requested from the city. Multivariate linear regression models were estimated to assess adjusted relationships between PTSD symptoms and discrimination.

Results: Discrimination was significantly associated with PTSD symptoms with a small effect size, controlling for relevant sociodemographic variables. This association remained consistent after controlling for psychological distress, perceived safety, and total neighborhood crime. There was no evidence of a gender by discrimination interaction. Participants who experienced any discrimination were significantly more likely to screen positive for PTSD.

Conclusions: Discrimination may contribute to the disparate rates of PTSD experienced by African Americans. PTSD is associated with a range of negative consequences, including poorer physical health, mental health, and quality of life. These results suggest the importance of finding ways to promote resilience in this at-risk population.     

皮质醇在不良童年经历与抑郁症状关联中的中介作用及性别差异

目的 探讨不良童年经历对抑郁症状的影响及皮质醇水平的中介作用和性别的调节作用。方法 采用多阶段随机抽样的方法抽取206名中学生。采用不良童年经历量表（ACE-IQ）、流调中心抑郁量表（CES-D）对其进行测量;采用化学发光分析方法检测皮质醇水平。结果 不良童年经历与皮质醇水平和抑郁症状呈正相关（r=0.14,P＜0.05;r=0.43,P＜0.01）,皮质醇水平与抑郁症状呈正相关（r=0.22,P＜0.01）。皮质醇水平在不良童年经历和抑郁症状之间起部分中介作用（β=0.17,t=2.590,P＜0.05）,中介效应占总效应的5.4%。性别对不良童年经历与抑郁症状的中介过程存在调节作用（中介作用的后半路径）（β=0.14,t=2.184,P＜0.05）;对于女生,皮质醇水平可以正向预测抑郁症状（β=0.05,t=4.176,P＜0.05）;对于男生,皮质醇不能预测抑郁症状（β=0.00,t=4.209,P＞0.05）。结论 皮质醇水平通过不良童年经历间接影响青少年的抑郁症状,且受到性别的调节。     

Disparity in disability between native-born non-Hispanic white and foreign-born Asian older adults in the United States: effects of educational attainment and age at immigration

It is widely known that educational attainment has considerable influence on the prevalence of disability among native-born non-Hispanic older adults in the US. However, few studies have examined whether educational attainment has a similar effect on disability among foreign-born Asian older adults. If it does not have a similar effect on these adults, why not, and is its effect influenced by the age at which they immigrated to the US? This study addresses these questions by using the 2006 American Community Survey Public Use Microdata Sample (ACS PUMS). Logistic regression analyses reveal that education has differential effects on the two racial groups. Education protects foreign-born Asians less than native-born non-Hispanic whites. In addition, Asian adults who immigrated earlier are less likely to experience disability. Interestingly, the interaction between age at immigration and educational attainment for foreign-born Asian older adults indicates that less educated Asians are more likely to benefit from early immigration. Heterogeneity within the Asian group is also examined. The findings suggest that educational attainment has differential effects not only on the two racial groups but also on the foreign-born Asian group depending on age at immigration.     

The interaction between axes of inequality in studies on discrimination,stigma and HIV/AIDS: Contributions to the recent international literature

This study aimed to conduct a systematic literature review in order to identify how recent studies have addressed the interaction between social inequality and the processes of exclusion and marginalisation related to HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination. The review was conducted using PubMed and Scopus databases and included publications from 2008 to 2011. Of 497 summaries found in the review, 42 were selected and classified based on topic, population, axes of inequality employed, conceptualisation of stigma and relationship between stigma and vulnerability. Results demonstrated that there is a predominance of research on stigma and discrimination towards people living with HIV/AIDS, sexual and racial/ethnic minorities and migrants. The axes of inequality examined in the literature were linked to specific cultural and socio-economic dimensions and analysed as factors that behave synergistically to increase social groups' vulnerability to HIV. Half of the 42 articles viewed expression of stigma/discrimination to be the result of power dynamics that reinforce the processes of social exclusion. The other half of the articles tended to describe stigma as intrinsic to social interaction. Some researchers are making a visible effort to devise consistent theoretical and methodological approaches in order to understand stigma as a complex social process produced at the intersection of different axes of inequality. These efforts provide vital information that can inform how best to address HIV/AIDS stigma.     

2型糖尿病患者视黄醇结合蛋白4与炎症因子、脂代谢及胰岛素抵抗的相关分析

目的探讨RBP-4对与2型糖尿病患者炎症因子超敏C反应蛋白（hs—CRP）、脂代谢及胰岛素抵抗的关系。方法105例门诊初诊患者及同期门诊或体检中心健康体检者,正常葡萄糖耐量（NGT）组34例和T2DM组71例,按BM1分为正常体重组（NW）56例及超重／肥胖组（OW／OB）49例。用ELISA测定血清RBP-4。全自动生化仪检测hs—CRP、游离脂肪酸（FFA）、甘油三酯（TG）、总胆固醇（Tc）;化学发光法检测胰岛素。结果T2DM组ln（HOMA—IR）、TG、FFA、In（hs—CRP）均高于NGR组[1．20±0．38VS0．76±0．34,（2．74±2．20）mmol／L vs（1．88±1．41）mmol／L,（0．80±0．29）mmol／L vs（0．61±0．22）mmol／L,0．62±1．00 vs -0．17±1．07],差异有统计学意义。单因素简单相关分析显示,NGR组lnRBP-4与In（HOMA-IR）存在正相关（r=0．382,P〈0．05）,与TC、TG、FFA、in（hs．CRP）无关。T2DM组,lnRBP-4与FFA、In（hs—CRP）呈正相关（r=0．242,P〈0．05;r=0．346,P〈0．01）,但与in（HOMA—IR）、TC、TG均无相关性。NW组,lnRBP-4与ln（HOMA—IR）、TC、TG、FFA、ln（hs-CRP）均无相关性。而OW／OB组,lnRBP-4与ln（HOMA—IR）、In（hs—CRP）呈正相关（r=0．290,0．295,P〈0．05）,但与TC、TG、FFA无关。逐步多元线性回归分析显示,各组的ln（hs—CRP）、TC、TG、FFA、in（HOMA—IR）均非lnRBP-4的独立影响因素。结论在T2DM患者中,RBP-4与ln（hs．CRP）、FFA正相关,可作为一新的炎症标志物。