Obstetric and nonmalignant gynecologic bleeding: treatment with angiographic embolization

Eight patients (seven post partum, one post abortion) with massive pelvic hemorrhage related to pregnancy and one patient with uncontrollable bleeding following a cervical biopsy underwent angiography to facilitate the identification and treatment of bleeding sites. In all nine patients pelvic hemorrhage was successfully controlled with embolization under angiographic guidance. Angiographic embolization allowed preservation of the uterus in six patients referred prior to hysterectomy, and one patient subsequently became pregnant. When conservative measures and minor surgical repairs have failed, embolization should be the next step in the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage to avoid major surgery in an unstable patient and to maintain reproductive function.     

骨盆骨折大出血救治技术与流程

由于骨盆的特殊结构,其内侧的血管网损伤导致不可压迫性出血。即使创伤中心和救治体系的建设,以及损害控制技术等发展,病死率仍然高达30%~60%。损害控制性复苏、骨盆带、外固定支架、复苏性腹主动脉内球囊阻断(REBOA)、动脉栓塞和腹膜外填塞等技术不断发展,部分已经得到普及,但迄今仍没有公认的确定性止血流程。我国正在普遍建设创伤中心,亟待制订适合我国的骨盆骨折大出血患者的救治流程,以提高救治成功率。本文阐述控制骨盆骨折大出血的外科技术和流程进展供同道参考。     

Radiologic damage control: Evaluation of a combined CT and angiography suite with a pivoting table

PURPOSE: To evaluate retrospectively the integrated diagnostic and therapeutic management of severely polytraumatized patients using a combined computed tomography (CT) and angiography suite with a single pivoting table. METHODS: Eleven patients, aged 16-74 years (median 30 years), were managed with spiral CT and angiography without patient transfer. Four patients were unstable, seven had received blood transfusions (2-18 units) and six were intubated. In 10 patients in whom active bleeding was demonstrated (splenic 5, hepatic 2, renal 2, left inferior epigastric artery 1), hemostatic embolization was obtained. RESULTS: Total procedure time did not exceed 80 min. Immediate hemostasis was achieved in all patients. Recurrent bleeding from the liver required additional embolization in one patient. Median length of stay in the intensive care unit was 4 days and median hospital stay was 27 days. All patients survived without significant sequelae. CONCLUSION: The use of a combined CT-angiography suite enables rapid diagnostic investigation and hemostatic embolization in actively bleeding trauma patients.     

Arterial Embolization in the Management of Mesenteric Bleeding Secondary to Blunt Abdominal Trauma

Introduction

Mesenteric bleeding is a rare but potentially life-threatening complication of blunt abdominal trauma. It can induce active hemorrhage and a compressive hematoma leading to bowel ischemia. Emergency laparotomy remains the gold standard treatment. We aimed to study the effectiveness and complications of embolization in patients with post-traumatic mesenteric bleeding.

Materials and Methods

The medical records of 7 consecutive patients with active mesenteric bleeding treated by embolization in a level-one trauma center from 2007 to 2014 were retrospectively reviewed. All patients presented with active mesenteric bleeding on CT scans without major signs of intestinal ischemia. We focused on technical success, clinical success, and the complications of embolization.

Results

Six endovascular procedures were successful in controlling hemorrhage but 1 patient had surgery to stop associated arterial and venous bleeding. One patient suffered from bowel ischemia, a major complication of embolization, which was confirmed by surgery. No acute renal failure was noted after angiography. For 1 patient we performed combined management as the endovascular approach allowed an easier surgical exploration.

Conclusion

In mesenteric trauma with active bleeding, embolization is a valuable alternative to surgery and should be considered, taking into account the risk of bowel ischemia.

     

Transcatheter therapeutic arterial embolization.

Transcatheter therapeutic arterial embolization was employed in 11 patients with gastrointestinal hemorrhage and 8 patients with bleeding from other sites. Hemorrhage was stopped successfully in all of the patients with gastrointestinal bleeding and 6 of the 7 patients with active bleeding from other sites. There were no significant complications or sequelae, although ischemia msy cause problems in such patients. Embolization is of considerable value when pharmacological therapy fails or is not appropriate due to the site of bleeding. In some cases it may represent the definitive treatment, as in pelvic trauma or renal hemorrhage; in others, embolization may serve to halt bleeding long enough to permit surgery. Therapeutic embolization should be considered whenever active extravasation of contrast material is demonstrated.     

Radiologic Damage Control: Evaluation of a Combined CT and Angiography Suite with a Pivoting Table

Purpose: To evaluate retrospectively the integrated diagnostic and therapeutic management of severely polytraumatized patients using a combined computed tomography (CT) and angiography suite with a single pivoting table. Methods: Eleven patients, aged 16–74 years (median 30 years), were managed with spiral CT and angiography without patient transfer. Four patients were unstable, seven had received blood transfusions (2–18 units) and six were intubated. In 10 patients in whom active bleeding was demonstrated (splenic 5, hepatic 2, renal 2, left inferior epigastric artery 1), hemostatic embolization was obtained. Results: Total procedure time did not exceed 80 min. Immediate hemostasis was achieved in all patients. Recurrent bleeding from the liver required additional embolization in one patient. Median length of stay in the intensive care unit was 4 days and median hospital stay was 27 days. All patients survived without significant sequelae. Conclusion: The use of a combined CT–angiography suite enables rapid diagnostic investigation and hemostatic embolization in actively bleeding trauma patients.     

Hemorrhage with pelvic fractures: efficacy of transcatheter embolization.

To determine the effectiveness of angiography in identifying bleeding sites and controlling the massive and often fatal hemorrhage accompanying pelvic fractures, the hospital course and outcome of 28 patients who underwent angiography after pelvic trauma were reviewed. In 20 patients, active bleeding was demonstrated. Transcatheter occlusions of bleeding arteries were performed in 18 of these, with angiographic ontrol of hemorrhage in 18 and clinical control in 17. Two patients with active bleeding were not embolized because of subsequent surgical intervention in one and technical angiographic difficulties in the other. Blood transfusion requirements averaged 32.1 units in the 48 hr or less before occlusion and 5.2 units during 48 hr after occlusion. Of the 18 patients who underwent arterial embolization, nine died, seven of associated injuries, one of extrapelvic hemorrhage, and one of hypotension. Nine patients survived to be discharged. These results confirm that transcatheter occlusion of bleeding vessels in the pelvis reduces hemorrhage and facilitates the management of patients with pelvic trauma.     

Transcatheter arterial embolization of acute upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding with N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate

PURPOSEl: To retrospectively analyze outcomes in patients who received an iodized oil formulation of N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate to treat acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen patients with acute upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding underwent angiography and transarterial embolization between April 2004 and December 2005. Patients with negative findings at arteriography and those with lesions in large vessels that did not necessitate a microcatheter for catheterization were excluded. Three types of embolization were used according to the accessible arteries: Localized embolization was used in the bleeding artery, and distal (segmental) or proximal embolization was used in the parent artery according to the final position of the catheter tip. Outcomes, including hemostasis, recurrent bleeding, and complications, were recorded. RESULTS: Immediate hemostasis was achieved in 14 patients (88%). One (6%) patient had technical failure due to arterial dissection, and one (6%) patient had therapeutic failure due to multiple ulcers and coagulopathy. Of the 14 patients with immediate hemostasis, one (7%) had recurrent bleeding 5 days after embolization. Both patients in whom hemostasis was not achieved (12%) died within 1 month of follow-up. Multiple gastric ulcers were seen in two (12%) patients who underwent embolization of a large area, and conservative treatment was sufficient. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this preliminary experience indicate that transarterial embolization with the iodized oil formulation is feasible and effective in the management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding; however, a larger number of cases should be investigated.     

Vascular complications of pancreatitis

Hemorrhage is one of the most life-threatening complications of pancreatitis. It is usually due to erosion of a major pancreatic or peripancreatic vessel with massive bleeding into the gastrointestinal tract or abdominal cavity, or to formation and subsequent rupture of an arterial pseudoaneurysm. In addition, the inflammatory process of pancreatitis may cause thrombosis of the portal vein or its main tributaries, the splenic and superior mesenteric veins, resulting in compartmental portal hypertension with gastric, mesenteric, or colonic varices. Variceal hemorrhage is not an uncommon vascular complication of pancreatitis. The use of the newer, noninvasive imaging modalities of US, duplex Doppler US, and bolus-dynamic CT; earlier use of diagnostic and therapeutic angiography; and a more aggressive surgical approach have led to significant reductions in morbidity and mortality rates for patients with vascular complications secondary to pancreatitis. The radiologic diagnosis of vascular complications can be accomplished with US, CT, and angiography. US and CT may show formation of arterial pseudoaneurysms, evidence of hemorrhage into a pancreatic pseudocyst or fluid collection, or portal venous thrombosis with development of varices. The presence of flow in a pseudoaneurysm, or absence of flow due to portal venous thrombosis, can be confirmed by contrast-enhanced dynamic CT or duplex Doppler US. Angiography should be utilized in all patients, if possible, to show the precise site and source of bleeding. Although active bleeding can be diagnosed only by detection of contrast extravasation, the source of bleeding often can be identified by demonstration of an underlying vascular abnormality, such as a pseudoaneurysm or varices. Patients who are hemodynamically stable and who have angiographic evidence of bleeding can be treated with transcatheter embolization. This may result in permanent control of the bleeding, providing definitive treatment, or temporary control, thus allowing surgery to be performed on an elective or semi-emergent basis. Patients who are unstable or who have vascular involvement that is not amenable to transcatheter embolization should have emergency surgery. Preoperative angiography should be performed prior to surgery, if possible. Angiography can show the surgeon the exact vessel involved, as well as the surrounding vascular anatomy, thus facilitating the surgical approach. In selected patients, occlusion balloon catheters can be employed to obtain hemostasis during or after pancreatic surgery.     

Active extravasation of arterial contrast agent on post-traumatic abdominal computed tomography.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of emergent dynamic intravenous contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) in the diagnosis of active arterial extravasation in patients admitted to hospital after blunt abdominal trauma. METHODS: Four-hundred and ninety-eight consecutive emergent contrast-enhanced computed tomographic images of the abdomen and pelvis were retrospectively reviewed. The presence of and site(s) of active arterial extravasation were recorded. Two radiologists reviewed the images and compared the site(s) of extravasated arterial contrast agent with the site(s) of active hemorrhage established at angiography (n = 9) or surgery (n = 4). RESULTS: Twenty-eight patients' computed tomographic images were identified as showing signs of extravasation of contrast agent representing active arterial bleeding. A total of 49 sources of active arterial extravasation were identified, 37 in 19 patients. A pelvic source of active arterial hemorrhage was most frequent and was typically associated with unstable pelvic fractures (n = 18). Other sources of active arterial hemorrhage included the liver (n = 3), spleen (n = 2), retroperitoneum (n = 1), kidney (n = 1), mesentery (n = 1), abdominal wall (n = 3) and lumbar region (n = 1). Only 9 of 28 patients became sufficiently hemodynamically unstable to warrant angiography. All 9 patients had a pelvic source of arterial extravasation on contrast-enhanced CT, and 7 demonstrated active bleeding requiring embolization. The contrast-enhanced computed tomographic images correctly indicated the anatomical source of bleeding in all 7 cases. CONCLUSION: In patients who have experienced blunt abdominal trauma, attention should be paid to the computed tomographic features of active arterial hemorrhage. In our series, the pelvis was the most common source of active arterial bleeding, which was typically associated with unstable pelvic fractures.     

Transcatheter embolization for acute lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage

PURPOSE: The authors review their experience using transcatheter embolization in the treatment of acute lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted on 17 patients who underwent superselective transcatheter embolization for an acute lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. All 17 patients were followed clinically 4 days to 60 months (mean, 18.5 months) after embolization for the presence of ischemia or for recurrent bleeding. In addition, 12 of 17 patients were examined 1 day to 12 months (mean, 38.8 months) after embolization by means of colonoscopy or by pathologic review. RESULTS: Transcatheter embolization achieved immediate hemostasis in 15 of 17 patients (88%) and was the definitive treatment in 76%. The other two patients underwent successful surgical resections after incomplete hemostasis of cecal lesions. Two patients of the 15, with initially successful embolizations, had recurrent hemorrhage within 30 days; both underwent further embolization with one failure. No intestinal infarction or stricture developed in the 15 patients who underwent successful embolization. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' experience supports the role of transcatheter embolization as a primary means of therapy for patients with an acute lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Their data further supports growing evidence that superselective embolization may be most efficacious in reducing complication rates.     

Transcatheter arterial embolization in gastric cancer patients with acute bleeding

The safety and clinical effectiveness of transcatheter arterial embolization for bleeding associated with unresectable gastric cancer was evaluated. Twenty-three patients with bleeding from unresectable gastric cancer underwent transcatheter arterial embolization. Of the 23 patients, eight showed signs of active bleeding, such as contrast extravasation or pseudoaneurysm, seven showed only tumor staining, and the remaining eight patients showed negative angiographic findings. All embolization procedures were successful without procedure-related complications. In all eight active bleeding patients, immediate hemostasis was achieved. The overall clinical success rate was 52% (12/23). Recurrent bleeding within 1 month occurred in one (8%) in 12 patients with initial clinical success. One patient showed partial splenic infarction after embolization of the splenic artery for active bleeding from the short gastric artery. Overall 30-day mortality rate was 43% (10/23). The median overall survival period was 38 days. In patients with bleeding from unresectable gastric cancer, transcatheter arterial embolization was found to be safe and effective for achieving immediate hemostasis for active bleeding. Although the clinical success rate was not high, the recurrent bleeding rate was low at 1 month post procedure.     

Transcatheter embolotherapy of massive bleeding after surgery for benign gynecologic disorders

Transcatheter embolotherapy is a well-established technique for control of bleeding in patients with pelvic trauma and pelvic malignancies, but it has been rarely used in massive vaginal bleeding after surgery for benign gynecologic disorders. We report five patients with massive post-operative vaginal hemorrhage following total abdominal hysterectomy (n = 3), repeated dilatation and curettage (n = 1) and cesarean section (n = 1), all successfully controlled with transcatheter embolization after many operative procedures had failed to stop the hemorrhage. The age of the patients ranged from 21 to 36 years. All patients underwent embolization of both internal iliac arteries with Gelfoam alone or in combination with stainless steel coils. The bleeding stopped immediately in all patients. Four patients recovered completely and one patient died of disseminated intravascular coagulation and multi-organ failure.     

Massive abdominal wall hemorrhage from injury to the inferior epigastric artery: a retrospective review

PURPOSE: To identify the etiology of inferior epigastric artery injury (IEAI) in patients referred to the interventional radiology service and determine the efficacy of diagnostic imaging and embolization in these patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of patients referred to the interventional radiology departments at three university-affiliated hospitals from 1995 through 2007 was performed. Patients were identified and data were extracted from case log books and the electronic medical record. RESULTS: Twenty IEAIs were identified in 19 patients. The etiology of arterial injury was paracentesis in eight (40%), surgical trauma in three (15%), percutaneous drain placement in three (15%), blunt trauma in two (10%), subcutaneous injection in one (5%), stabbing in one (5%), and unknown in two (10%). Fifteen of 19 patients (79%) had an underlying coagulopathy. The diagnosis was confirmed by contrast medium-enhanced computed tomography (CT) in 14 (70%), tagged red blood cell scan in two (10%), and noncontrast CT in one (5%). Three patients (15%) had no diagnostic imaging. Contrast medium-enhanced CT showed active extravasation in nine of 14 patients (64%) and 13 of 14 exhibited active extravasation on subsequent arteriography. The sensitivity and specificity of contrast medium-enhanced CT for demonstrating active arterial bleeding were 70% and 100%, respectively. All 20 IEAIs were treated with transcatheter embolization, with an overall success rate of 90% and no complications. CONCLUSIONS: IEAI is most often an iatrogenic injury in a coagulopathic patient. Contrast medium-enhanced CT can be diagnostic for active bleeding, but in the setting of ongoing hemorrhage a negative study result should not preclude arteriography. Embolization is an effective means to control hemorrhage.     

Embolization for a bleeding pelvic fracture in a patient with persistent sciatic artery

Emergency embolization for a bleeding pelvic fracture was performed in a patient with persistent sciatic artery, a rare anatomic variation in which the internal iliac artery continues to the popliteal artery. Successful hemostasis was achieved without complications by means of selective catheterization into each branch of the internal iliac artery. Awareness of this unusual vascular anatomy is critically important to avoid serious complication of emergency embolization.     

Using contrast-enhanced helical CT to visualize arterial extravasation after blunt abdominal trauma: incidence and organ distribution.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the incidence and organ distribution of arterial extravasation identified using contrast-enhanced helical CT in patients who had sustained abdominal visceral injuries and pelvic fractures after blunt trauma. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Five hundred sixty-five consecutive patients from four level I trauma centers who had CT scans showing abdominal visceral injuries or pelvic fractures were included in this series. The presence or absence of arterial extravasation, as well as the anatomic sites of arterial extravasation, was noted. We obtained clinical follow-up data, including surgical or angiographic findings. RESULTS: In our series, 104 (18.4%) of 565 patients had arterial extravasation. Of the 104 patients, 81 (77.9%) underwent surgery, embolization, or both. The combined rate of surgery or embolization in patients with arterial extravasation was statistically higher than expected at all four institutions (p <0.001). The spleen was the most common organ injured, occurring in 277 (49.0%) of 565 patients, and arterial extravasation occurred in 49 (17.7%) of 277 patients with splenic injury. Several other visceral injuries were associated with arterial extravasation, including hepatic, renal, adrenal, and mesenteric injuries. CONCLUSION: Based on the limited reports of arterial extravasation in the nonhelical CT literature, the percentage (18%) of clinically stable patients in our study with CT scans showing arterial extravasation was higher than anticipated. This finding likely reflects the improved diagnostic capability of helical CT. Although the spleen and liver were the organs most commonly associated with arterial extravasation, radiologists should be aware that arterial extravasation may be associated with several other visceral injuries.     

Interventional radiology in the treatment of retroperitoneal trauma

Interventional radiology is used most often in the management of the trauma patient to control hemorrhage and drain fluid collections. Transcatheter arterial embolization is an effective, expeditious, and safe technique for the nonoperative control of renal and other retroperitoneal bleeding, arteriovenous fistulas, and pseudoaneurysms. Transcatheter drainage of renal and other retroperitoneal collections of pus, urine, and blood is successful in more than 90% of trauma patients; such drainage should be attempted prior to any surgical intervention. Other procedures, such as antegrade nephrostomy, ureteral stenting and dilatation, angioplasty of traumatic renal artery stenosis, and suprapubic cystostomy, are infrequently indicated but provide alternatives to standard surgical intervention.     

Interventional radiology in the treatment of retroperitoneal trauma

Interventional radiology is used most often in the management of the trauma patient to control hemorrhage and drain fluid collections. Transcatheter arterial embolization is an effective, expeditious, and safe technique for the nonoperative control of renal and other retroperitoneal bleeding, arteriovenous fistulas, and pseudoaneurysms. Transcatheter drainage of renal and other retroperitoneal collections of pus, urine, and blood is successful in more than 90% of trauma patients; such drainage should be attempted prior to any surgical intervention. Other procedures, such as antegrade nephrostomy, ureteral stenting and dilatation, angioplasty of traumatic renal artery stenosis, and suprapubic cystostomy, are infrequently indicated but provide alternatives to standard surgical intervention.     

Percutaneous management of hemorrhages in pelvic fractures

PURPOSE: To report our experience in the control of haemorrhage with the transcatheter embolisation technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between 1999-2001, we treated 56 patients with important pelvic trauma. Forty-two were victims of car accidents and 14 of falls from great altitudes. Twenty presented acute symptoms due to blunt pelvic trauma, with massive bleeding, not treatable by drugs and blood transfusion. Diagnosis of pelvic haemorrhage was made with CT. When high-flow haemorrhage was found, the patient was referred for angiography. Embolisation was achieved after a diagnostic arteriography, with bilateral transfemoral approach and selective catheterisation of the internal iliac arteries. RESULTS: Technical success was achieved in 100% of cases: all the haemorragic sites were found and embolised. In only one patient with severe shock was it impossible to locate the site of contrast material extravasation on the first day; the patient was successfully treated on the second day with improvement of the clinical conditions. The obturator artery was involved in five cases, the gluteal artery in eleven. In eighteen patients, use of an angiographic catheter was sufficient to treat the haemorragic sites. Percutaneous control of the haemorrhage was obtained by using Gelfoam, Ivalon and coils. CONCLUSIONS: Percutaneous haemorrhage control is safe and effective, and not as costly or dangerous as the surgical option. We regard it as the treatment of choice in multiple trauma patients with important and high-flow pelvic haemorrhage.     

Efficacy and procedural time of angioembolization in ongoing pelvic fracture hemorrhage

Objective

To study the effectiveness and procedural time of different techniques of angioembolization, in patients with hemorrhage associated with pelvic fracture.

Patients and methods

Case series study of 17 patients underwent angiography and 16 of them underwent embolization for treatment of hemorrhage associated-pelvic fracture. The total time spent for angioembolization, the actual time of work, and the sum of time of patient transport, preparation and compression of the femoral puncture were calculated.

Results

Transcatheter arterial embolization was successful at stopping the pelvic arterial bleeding in all 16 (100%) patients. The actual time spent in angioembolization; ranged from 18 to 110 min (mean = 63.3). The time lapsed for patient transport between the trauma unit and angiography suite, patient preparation and compression of the femoral puncture ranged from 20 to 40 min (mean = 29.5). Bilateral occlusion of the internal iliac main trunk was the fastest effective technique (mean time 22 min). The survival rate was 76.5%, and none of deaths resulted from ongoing hemorrhage.

Conclusion

Embolization among patients bleeding from pelvic fractures is very effective at arresting pelvic arterial hemorrhage. Angioembolization should not be considered a time consuming procedure, if the technique is well-tailored to the general condition of the patient.