Assessment of subjective stress in the municipal police force at the start and at the end of the shift

The aim of this study was to assess subjective stress in the municipal police force of a large Italian city by administering the Rapid Stress Assessment (RSA) Scale, a self‐rated tool, in order to identify any possible differences between the start and the end of the shift. Two samples of 100 exposed traffic police officers and 100 non‐exposed office‐workers of both sexes were assessed. The subjects were interviewed on a working day, at the start (6.45 a.m.) and end (2 p.m.) of their shift. The analysis of the data showed a significantly higher total score, as well as scores in the anxiety and aggressiveness clusters at the end of the shift both in traffic police officers and in office‐workers compared to those recorded at the start of the shift. The RSA ‘somatization’ cluster was only significantly higher at the end of the shift in traffic police officers with respect to the start of the shift. A gender analytical framework showed a higher score among separated or divorced women with children. The results could be taken to mean that the stressors have, throughout the working day, an ‘exhausting’ effect and the subject feels ‘down’, despite having finished his/her work for the day. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of the new deal: doctors' stress levels and their views

Doctors' stress levels were measured before and after the introduction of a partial shift system as a result of the New Deal, through the administration of the OSI questionnaire. Doctors' opinions regarding the introduction of this new work pattern were collected through the use of an in‐depth, semi‐structured interview schedule. The study doctors working the on‐call rota exhibited higher stress levels than the doctor ‘norm’ group, and higher than most other professional groups. The introduction of a partial shift system resulted in a marked reduction of stress levels in relation to mental well‐being and job satisfaction, and a significant reduction in the effect of stress on physical health. The study doctors perceived that the introduction of partial shifts would undermine the close relationship between continuity of patient care, the ‘firm’ system and training. The on‐call rota was preferred, providing the remuneration for its antisocial aspects was more appropriate. The abolition of 24‐hour working and improvements in residential accommodation were perceived as advantageous. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Police officers' coping strategies: An Australian police survey

Police officers, in the performance of their duties, face a range of potentially stressful situations and events. These have the capacity to cause significant personal distress, leading to short — and long-term changes in mood, psychological functioning and social activity. In response to the stresses of the job, officers must utilize any number of coping strategies to deal with their occupational stress. The aim of the present study was to examine the stress-coping strategies used by a large sample of Australian police personnel. Responses to the Revised Ways of Coping Checklist showed that most officers utilize problem-focused, direct action coping strategies, with more limited use of social supports, self-blame and wishful thinking. While their coping behaviours may help them moderate problem-focused stress concerns, the data suggest that many officers may not deal effectively with their emotion-focused concerns. These data are examined in the light of the research literature detailing the so-called police personality.     

Work stress and performance among financial traders

This study investigated factors associated with work stress and performance among professional decision‐makers in financial markets. Three hundred and twenty‐six financial traders completed questionnaires while supervisors provided performance ratings. Of these 32 per cent of traders reported ‘very high’ or ‘extremely high’ stress levels. Overall, traders ranked ‘profit goal’ as the highest stressor followed by ‘long working hours’. Traders' experience of occupational stress was based on four main factors: Profit Pressure, Social Pressure, Work Load, and Decision‐Processing. These factors varied systematically across different trading roles. Proprietary traders with higher performance ratings experienced less stress. Similar stress ‘profiles’ of North American and European traders indicate universal responses to job demands. Trader work stress is possibly mitigated through self‐selection and substantial latitude over trading style. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stressful life events and posttraumatic growth among police officers: A cross‐sectional study

Police officers often continue to face numerous threats and stressors in the aftermath of a disaster. To date, posttraumatic growth (PTG) has been studied primarily in the context of significant trauma; thus, it is not known whether stressful life events are associated with PTG. This study investigated the development of PTG among 113 police officers working in the New Orleans area following Hurricane Katrina. Hierarchical regression was used to evaluate if gratitude, social support, and satisfaction with life moderated the relationship between stressful life events (as measured by the total life stress score) and PTG, after adjustment for age, sex, race, level of involvement in Hurricane Katrina, and alcohol intake. Results indicate that stressful life events are independently associated with PTG. Gratitude, satisfaction with life, and social support were seen to moderate this relationship; as stressful life events increased so too did PTG—particularly among officers with higher levels of gratitude (B = 0.002, p ≤ .05), satisfaction with life (B = 0.002, p ≤ .05), and social support (B = 0.001, p ≤ .05). These findings suggest that promoting satisfaction with life, interpersonal support, and gratitude may be beneficial to those who are regularly at risk of trauma exposure.     

Does workload cause work‐home interference or is it the other way around?

The present study was designed to investigate the causal relationships between work‐home interference (WHI) and one of its strongest correlates, quantitative workload. Two‐phase longitudinal data (with a 1‐year time lag) were gathered from 828 Dutch police officers. Drawing on the effort‐recovery model, and in line with the current WHI literature, we hypothesized that relatively high workload precedes increased levels of WHI 1 year later (‘normal’ causation). In addition, we tested the alternative hypothesis that relatively high levels of WHI predict increased workload 1 year later (‘reversed’ causation). Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed that workload and WHI have causal and reversed causal relationships across time, supporting both hypotheses (although effect sizes are limited). Accordingly, these findings suggest that workload is not merely an antecedent of WHI but is also a potential consequence. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychiatric morbidity in policemen and the effect of brief psychotherapeutic intervention — a pilot study

The level of psychiatric morbidity and perceived sources of stress among police officers were investigated using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and a stress situation questionnaire, which were sent to 171 officers. Half of the responders were invited to attend group counselling sessions weekly for 12 weeks. Outcome measures studied were a second GHQ completed at the end of the treatment period and the amounts of sick leave taken in the 12-week period before, during and after the treatment period. The results were that 61 people returned the first GHQ of whom 59 were male and of whom 14 were classed as ‘cases’. Of the 31 assigned to the treatment group, 22 attended at least one session. Responses to the stress situation questionnaire and the content of counselling sessions tended to confirm the impression that internal aspects of the organization were viewed as prime sources of stress and dissatisfaction. There were no significant changes in GHQ score within or between groups, nor were there significant differences in the amount of sick leave taken. Nevertheless the sessions appeared to be valued and we conclude that this sort of intervention is at least feasible. We recommend that similar studies measure psychiatric morbidity during treatment and at follow-up, rather than immediately after finishing, when reactions to this termination are prominent.     

A study of methods used by scottish police officers to cope with work-induced stress

This study investigated how and with what success police officers combat, both off and on duty, work-related stress. Their methods are not particularly successful, and the methods used do not differentiate between gender, rank and duties. While ‘healthy’ methods, such as exercise, are used, there is a tendency towards the increased use of alcohol, smoking and eating as means of relieving stress.     

The nature and burden of occupational injury among first responder occupations: A retrospective cohort study in Australian workers

IntroductionWorkers in first responder (FR) occupations are at heightened risk for workplace injury given their exposure to physical/psychological hazards. This study sought to (1) characterise the occupational risk of injury; (2) determine factors associated with injury; and (3) characterise the burden of injury-related disability in police, ambulance officers, fire/emergency workers, compared with other occupations.MethodsA retrospective cohort of 2,439,624 claims occurring between July 2003 and June 2012 was extracted from the Australian National Dataset for Compensation-Based Statistics. Cases aged 16–75 years working 1–100 pre-injury hours per week were included. Regression models estimated risk of making a workers’ compensation (WC) claim by age, gender, occupation and injury type. Injury burden was calculated using count and time loss, and statistically compared between groups.ResultsThe risk of making a WC claim among FR occupations was more than 3 times higher than other occupations. Risk of claiming was highest among female FRs and those aged 35–44 years. Ambulance officers had the greatest risk of upper-body MSK injuries and fire and emergency workers the greatest risk of lower-body MSK injuries. The risk of mental health conditions was elevated for all FR occupations but highest among police officers. The total burden of injury (expressed as working weeks lost per 1000 workers) differed significantly between groups and was highest amongst police.Discussion and conclusionsFirst responders record significantly higher rates of occupational injury claims than other occupations. Using a national population based dataset, this study demonstrates that not only are first responders exposed to significantly higher rates of occupational injury than all other occupations combined, but they experience differential injury patterns depending on their occupation. This suggests that among FR occupations injury prevention efforts should reflect these differences and be targeted to occupation-specific patterns of injury.     

Policing the violent society: The American experience

Contemporary law enforcement officers must function as counsellors, social workers, psychologists, negotiators and investigators, as well as traditional police officers. Their work alternates from dull and boring to moments of sheer panic, when life and death decisions have to be made in a matter of seconds. The combination of factors in police work–dealing with terrible situations and traumatized victims, and working under the threat of physical danger–results in overwhelming stress. It is this unusual amount of stress that makes explicable the fact that police officers in the United States have high rates of problem drinking, suicide and divorce. How exactly does stress cause attitude and behaviour changes, impair familiy and social relationships and develop cynicism, apathy and an unwillingness to seek help? This article explores these concerns and the early warning signs of poor adaptation to the stress created by policing violence. Some techniques to combat poor adaptation are also outlined.     

THE PERCEIVED IMPACT OF POLICE WORK ON POLICE OFFICERS' SPOUSES AND FAMILIES

Over 400 spouses of police officers were surveyed by questionnaire to assess the impact of police work on the welfare and functioning of these spouses and their families. The results suggest that police work has an adverse impact, particularly in terms of spouses' social life. The main culprits are long hours, shiftwork and cancelled leave. Dangerous duties and working with the opposite sex did not usually have an injurious effect on those at home. The methods used by the officers to combat work-induced stress may create additional difficulties for their spouses and families.     

Patterns of PTSD among police officers following shooting incidents: A two-dimensional model and treatment implications

Shooting incidents are a rare phenomenon in low violence police work. However, when an incident occurs, the psychological impact for the officers involved may take the form of severe PTSD symptomatology. Of 37 police officers who had been involved in serious shooting incidents between 1977 and 1984 we found that 17 (46%) fulfilled DSM-III criteria for PTSD, either at the time of the interview (n=7, 19%) or prior to it (n=10, 27%). Of the PTSD-negative group 17 still showed an impressive pattern of PTSD symptoms. Only three showed no symptoms of PTSD at all. Lauferet al. (1985) presented a two-dimensional model which seems to fit the PTSD-pattern in police officers reacting to trauma. From clinical experience, it is apparent that most police officers involved in these incidents seek refuge in denial (Lazarus, 1984). Focused psychotherapy in combination with working through of the incidents and sometimes psychopharmacological intervention appear to be of value in alleviating PTSD in police officers. Preliminary experience in psychotherapy with these police officers is presented in two case vignettes.     

Chronic Trauma Effects on Personality Traits in Police Officers

The impact of cumulative occupational exposure to traumatic events (TEs), posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, and work environment stress on personality traits over time was examined in 38 police officers from an urban agency. California Psychological Inventory (CPI) personality trait scores from prehire evaluations were compared with follow‐up CPI scores to test whether exposure to traumatic events was correlated with changes in traits from baseline to 5–10 years later. Measures of occupational TEs, PTS symptoms, and police work environment stress were administered. Mean trait scores declined on all CPI traits analyzed in the study. Trait change was evaluated using the Reliable Change Index; change in participants’ scores unlikely to occur by chance ranged from 11% to 63% in the traits examined. All participants reported substantial TE exposure. PTS symptoms were correlated with steeper decline in 4 of 5 traits, with effect sizes ranging from r =  ?.47 to r = ?.67. Scores on measures of job‐related TEs were negatively correlated with only one CPI trait (empathy) at T2 (r = ?.31), and were unrelated to slope of trait change. Work environment stress was significantly related to gender, with female officers reporting higher levels of operational (r = .45) and organizational (r = .54) stress.     

Examining Occupational Stress,Sources of Stress and Stress Management Strategies through the Eyes of Management Consultants: A Multiple Correspondence Analysis for Latent Constructs

To date, little research has yet focused in broad assessment for management consultancy professionals. This investigation aims to analyse management consultants' self‐perceptions of occupational stress (SPoOS), sources of stress (SoS) and stress management strategies (SMS) and to find latent constructs that can work as major determinants in consultants' conceptualization of SPoOS, SoS and SMS. Measures were completed, including demographics and interviews. Complete data were available for 39 management consultants, 53.8% male and aged between 23 and 56 years (M = 38.0; SD = 9.2). The data were subjected to content analysis. Representation of the associations and latent constructs were analysed by a multiple correspondence analysis. Results indicated that ‘intellectual disturber’ (31.4%) was the most referred SPoOS, ‘high workload’ (15.1%) was identified as the most prevalent perceived SoS and ‘coaching’ (19.0%) was the most mentioned SMS. No significant differences between the two gender groups were found regarding the three total scores. SPoOS was explained by a two‐factor model: ‘organization‐oriented’ and ‘person‐oriented’. A three‐dimension model formed by ‘job concerns’, ‘organizational constraints’ and ‘career expectations’ was indicated as a best‐fit solution for SoS, and SMS was best explained in a three‐dimension model by ‘group dynamics strategies’, ‘organizational culture strategies’ and ‘individual support strategies’. This research makes a unique contribution for a better understanding of what defines SPoOS, SoS and SMS for management consultants. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Role conflicts,emotional exhaustion and health problems: a study of police officers in Taiwan

This study focused on the role conflicts faced by police officers in Taiwan and investigated the relationship between role conflicts, emotional exhaustion and health problems based on the job demands and resources model (JD‐R model). Firstly, in addition to work–family conflict, an inter‐role conflict, this study identified an intrasender role conflict for police officers called uncompromising‐friendly conflict. Secondly, according to the JD‐R model, it was hypothesized that emotional exhaustion has a complete mediation effect on the relationships between role conflicts and health problems. The survey data in Huang's study were analysed. A total of 672 police officers at Kaohsiung, Taiwan provided completed data for analysis. Correlation analysis showed that role conflicts, emotional exhaustion and health problems were positively correlated. Results of the structural equation model further suggested that the positive effect of role conflicts on health problems was partially mediated by emotional exhaustion. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General versus specific measures of occupational stress: An Australian police survey

Groups of police officers from two Australian police forces completed a number of psychological tests to determine the stressors of police life and to assess the impact of a number of personality variables on stress appraisals. Work stresses were found to fall into two discernible categories: job content stressors — those which arise from the duties police officers carry out — and job context stressors — those which derive from the nature of the police organizations in which officers perform their duties. All personality measures correlated more highly with job context stressors than with job content stressors, suggesting that the major source of stress for police officers come from the organization in which they work.     

Psychophysiological Predictors of Working Alliance Among Treatment‐Seeking Women With Complex Trauma Exposure

Research has established that trauma‐related symptoms may impede the formation of a strong working alliance (i.e., interpersonal connection, trust, and shared goals between therapist and client). As the alliance is critical in trauma‐focused therapy, we studied how clients’ pretherapy factors, including symptoms and psychophysiological arousal, predict treatment alliance. We examined symptoms and physiological responses in 27 women who had exposure to extreme interpersonal violence; all of whom were enrolled in therapy. All had symptoms consistent with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clients completed measures of working alliance and were assessed before and after treatment on measures of symptoms and autonomic arousal. Autonomic assessment included measures of skin conductance and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), taken during baseline, while viewing positive and then trauma‐related slides, and during recovery. Higher alliance ratings were predicted by lower pretherapy skin conductance during trauma slides (r = ?.41, p = .049) and recovery (r = ?.44, p = .047) and higher RSA during baseline (r = .47, p = .027) and positive slides (r = .43, p = .044). Findings remained significant even after partialling pretherapy symptoms. These data on a high‐need but understudied population suggest that sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal may help traumatized clients effectively engage in therapy, further supporting the role of parasympathetic activity in social engagement.     

Cortisol outcomes among caucasian and latina/hispanic women caring for a family member with dementia: a preliminary examination of psychosocial predictors and effects of a psychoeducational intervention

A host of interventions are now known to be helpful to alleviate subjective distress and improve well‐being in dementia caregivers. However, few intervention studies have focused on measures of physical health, and none have examined cortisol as an outcome—despite the fact that cortisol is regarded as a crucial biological intermediary by which chronic stress leads to disease. In this study, we examined demographic and psychosocial factors as predictors of salivary cortisol at a baseline assessment, among a sample of 175 Latino/Hispanic and Caucasian women caring for a family member with dementia. We also examined the influence of a cognitive–behaviour‐based psychoeducational intervention (Coping with Caregiving) on cortisol at a post‐treatment assessment, compared with a minimal support condition. Results revealed that caregivers with high intensity caregiving situations, characterized by long hours of care and co‐residence with the care recipient, tended to have less adaptive cortisol patterns. However, these ‘at‐risk’ caregivers benefited most from the Coping with Caregiving intervention and had more normal cortisol patterns at post‐treatment, compared with caregivers in the control condition. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Acute stress and performance in police recruits

Emergency personnel consistently work under high‐stress situations, and thus, the question about whether this stress affects performance is critical to the safety of both themselves and the public. However, considerable controversy exists about the influence of stress on performance. This study investigates the association between both biological and psychological manifestations of stress and performance. The study was conducted with 84 police recruits using a high‐fidelity simulation of a policing event in order to try to determine performance in a life‐like workplace environment. Measures included both biological (heart rate and salivary cortisol levels) and psychological (subjective anxiety) indicators of stress. Performance was videotaped and was later evaluated by three expert raters. The results of this study are promising in that neither physiological nor psychological responses impaired performance in a simulated acutely stressful policing situation. On the other hand, those individuals with greater cortisol release showed higher levels of performance, supporting the notion that cortisol can enhance ability in high‐stress situations. Recruits were also asked to subjectively evaluate their performance. A small group of individuals ranked themselves as poor performers while evaluators ranked them highly. These individuals experienced significantly higher increase in subjective distress and significantly higher cortisol levels at baseline and peak. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

STRESS AND AROUSAL CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS IN SMOKERS AND NON-SMOKERS WORKING DAY AND NIGHT SHIFTS

Twenty smokers and twenty non-smokers completed a brief Mood State Questionnaire every 2 hours, over one day shift and one night shift. The subjects comprised male police officers and factory workers, aged 23–57 years. Cigarette smokers reported significantly higher stress levels than non-smokers on both day and night shifts (p<0.05). This confirms previous findings that smokers are often more stressed than non-smokers. Stress levels varied over time within each shift (p<0.001), but the circadian patterns did not differ between smokers and non-smokers. Thus smoking did not alter circadian mood rhythms, nor did it facilitate stress control. Self-rated levels of arousal showed the archetypal inverted-U pattern over time in both smokers and non-smokers. There was no difference in mean arousal levels between subgroups, indicating that cigarettes did not lead to greater alertness. The shift×time interaction was significant for both stress (p<0.001) and arousal (p<0.003), indicating different circadian rhythms during the day shift and the night shift. Finally, while smokers consumed slightly more cigarettes during the night shift than day shift (22.3, 19.4 respectively, p<0.05), mean stress and arousal levels did not differ between shifts. The implications of these findings for smoking behaviour are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.