Interdisciplinary research strategies in geriatric psychiatry--studies and results in dementia and depressed patients

Eighty-one patients (mean age: 66 +/- 9 years) who had been in gerontopsychiatric in-patient care were included in the study. As well as physical, psychiatric and neurological examinations, EEG, brain CT scanning and the determination of the Ischemic Scale were performed, in order to confirm the clinical diagnosis of dementia of Alzheimer type (DAT), dementia of vascular type (DVT) or multi-infarct dementia (MID), and depression in old age, as based on the DSM III criteria. A comprehensive psychological test battery was administered, to one section of the subjects. Our results indicate that EEG and Ischemic Score can differentiate patients with DAT and DVT to a satisfactory degree, whereas CT findings and psychometric assessment were apt to confirm the overall diagnosis of dementia (DAT/DVT) and depression. Patients with dementia showed memory impairment to a greater extent than depressive patients, as could be proved by a memory test (Syndrom-Kurztest). However, a dementia screening test (Information-Memory-Concentration Test) could more accurately differentiate dementia and depression. The application of a comprehensive psychometric testing procedure did not prove to be an effective diagnostic tool in the assessment of various stages of dementia. Short dementia tests and rating scales seem to be appropriate to distinguish depression from dementia, especially in cases of mild to moderate dementia. In patients with very mild and insignificant organic brain disturbances these screening methods fall short of diagnostic validity. Beyond this, there is a current need for assessment instruments in the evaluation of alterations in personality and affectivity, such as are seen in depression.     

The abnormally aged brain. Its blood flow and oxidative metabolism. A review — Part II

The most common brain disease in middle and old age is dementia. Primary dementias comprise degenerative (dementia of Alzheimer type, DAT) and cerebrovascular (dementia of vascular type, DVT) types. These dementia types differ in morphological, clinical, and pathobiochemical terms. In DAT, large amounts of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles or paired helical filaments, are present throughout the whole brain cortex, but particularly numerous in temporal areas. Here and in hippocampus, the presynaptic cholinergic system seems to be predominantly affected. In DVT, multiple small infarcts are scattered over brain cortex and white matter obviously due to disturbances in cerebral microcirculation. Dementia is closely related to disturbances in brain blood flow and oxidative metabolism. In the beginning of DAT, cerebral blood flow and CMR-oxygen are found to be in normal ranges, but CMR-glucose is reduced. In DVT, cerebral blood flow and CMR-oxygen are also within the normal range, but CMR-glucose is found to be abnormally increased. When dementia symptoms are well developed in DAT, the same relationship between circulation and metabolism are found. Well-developed DVT symptoms seem to be associated with changes in blood flow and metabolism similar to variations after ischemic/anoxic lesions. In the beginning of both dementia types, a close correlation exists between cerebral blood flow and CMR-oxygen, but there is a dissociation from CMR-glucose. In the further course of both dementia types, cerebral blood flow and metabolism run into a final common path of a low functional level. No distinction between the dementia types is possible. In general, severity of dementia symptoms are correlated to the deviation of cerebral blood flow and metabolism from normal. There is much evidence that dementia, i.e. abnormal cerebral aging is different from normal cerebral aging. Dementia is not a form of accelerated cerebral aging.     

脑血管性痴呆200例脑电图、脑电地形图分析

目的探讨脑电图,脑电地形图对脑血管性痴呆诊断的临床意义。方法对200例通过MRI确诊为脑血管性痴呆患者的脑电图、脑电地形图资料进行回顾性分析。结果脑电图、脑电地形图显示异常169例,出现异常较CT检查早。结论脑电图、脑电地形图能够早期诊断脑血管性痴呆。     

老年脑梗死后痴呆危险因素的临床研究

目的探讨老年脑梗死后痴呆的临床危险因素。方法选择于2002年10月~2004年10月入住天津港口医院的脑梗死患者共362例,其年龄≥60岁,男性192例,女性170例,包括其住院时及发病后2个月的病史、化验结果、神经病学、神经心理学等方面的临床资料,并进行统计学分析。结果入选362例患者中诊断为痴呆者102例(发生率为28.2%)。logistic回归分析显示高龄、低教育、脑卒中史、糖尿病、严重神经功能缺损、左半球脑梗死、前循环脑梗死等因素为脑梗死后痴呆的独立危险因素。结论老年脑梗死后约有1/4患者出现痴呆,其临床危险因素包括:梗死部位及严重程度、血管性危险因素(如糖尿病、脑卒中史)、患者的特征(如高龄、文化程度低)等。     

Clinical findings in Alzheimer dementia and multi-infarct dementia

From 1969 to 1989, 63 patients with dementia of the Alzheimer-type (DAT), 84 patients with multi-infarct dementia (MID), and 52 mixed type patients were treated. Two-thirds of the patients were women. Among the 66 men, 23% belonged to the DAT-group, and 56% to the MID-group. While the DAT-group, with regard to the age at on-set of dementia, showed a bimodal distribution with peaks at 51-55 years and at 71-75 years, in the MID-patients and in the MB-patients an age-related increase up to the age of 80 years was evident. Compared to the MID-patients, in the DAT-patients pathological EEG findings were less serious, even if a considerable brain atrophy was already evident. Psychic unbalance and states of temporary mental confusion, however, were more frequent in the MID-patients.     

Correlations between psychopathology,psychological test results and computerized tomography changes in senile dementia

This study is an investigation of the relationship between morphological, neuropsychological, and clinical measurements, all presumably contributing to an expert's diagnosis of senile dementia. Morphological assessment was carried out by linear measurements taken from the photographs of the CT scanners display. The battery of tests comprised instruments able to evaluate performance (WAIS, Benton test, d2 test, Trail Making test) as well as personality (FPI) from a quantitative point of view. For clinical assessment the Assessment Scale for Gerontopsychiatry (AGP) was used. A group of 39 patients suffering from mild to severe dementia was studied. The results show strong correlations between some sub-tests of the WAIS and certain CT measurements but fail to show comparable features in using the full scale IQ. The other cognitive tests did not work as well in detecting brain atrophy. Surprisingly, the personality inventory (FPI) showed some correlations with brain atrophy. A number of correlations between morphological and clinical variables were found as well, consistent with well-known clinical experience. Topographical features will be discussed supporting the view that cerebral lesions in the progress of senile dementia take the form of distinct patterns.     

血管性痴呆患者脑脊液中血管紧张素Ⅱ和精氨酸加压素含量与认知功能的相关性

目的　探讨血管性痴呆 (VD)患者脑脊液中血管紧张素Ⅱ (angiotensinⅡ ,AngⅡ )、精氨酸加压素 (argininevaso presin ,AVP)含量的变化 ,事件相关电位P30 0 潜伏期 (P30 0 Peaklatency,P30 0 PL)变化和意义。方法　 (1)认知功能评价 :运用简易精神状态量表 (MMSE)、P30 0 潜伏期 (P30 0 PL)、Hachinski缺血量表 (HIS)、社会功能活动调查 (FAQ)量表 ;(2 )病例分组 :VD组 5 0例 ;对照组 2 6例 ,为中枢神经系统非器质性疾病患者 ;(3)用放射免疫分析法 (RIA)测定患者脑脊液 (CSF)中AngⅡ、AVP含量。结果　VD组患者CSF中AngⅡ含量显著高于对照组 (10 3.6 5± 17.4 2 ,35 .18± 18.2 4 ) ,而AVP含量显著低于对照组 (1.6 1± 0 .4 7,3.2 4± 0 .72 ,P <0 .0 1) ;P30 0 PL显著延长 (4 38.4 2± 38.73,331.37± 35 .86 ) ,而MMSE评分显著降低 (14 .4 2± 7.6 1,2 7.4 3± 2 .15 ,P <0 .0 1)。结论　脑内AngⅡ、AVP含量变化在VD的发病中可能起重要作用。     

Mortality of demented patients in a geriatric institution

A group of 237 elderly patients with dementia of Alzheimer type (DAT) or multi-infarct dementia (MID) was randomly selected in a large geriatric institution in Milan. Mean age of the sample was 78.9 years, 160 (67.5%) were DAT patients and 77 (32.5%) were MID patients. Half of the sample had low levels of autonomy and after 4 years 183 (77.2%) patients were dead. Predictors of mortality, according to a univariate analysis, were age, level of autonomy and type of diagnosis (DAT vs. MID). Mortality rate after 4 years was significantly higher (p less than 0.001) in DAT (86.9%) than in MID (57.1%) patients.     

血管性痴呆的临床诊断和治疗

近年来,血管性痴呆(VaD)的定义和临床诊断标准逐渐建立。已有2个很好的工具可用于VaD的诊断———NINDS-AIREN和ADDTC。尽管NINDS-AIREN和NINCDS-ADRDA标准可用来区分单纯性VaD和单纯性Alzheimer病,但VaD与Alzheimer病的鉴别以及混合性痴呆的诊断仍然具有一定的挑战性。一系列研究已证实乙酰胆碱酯酶抑制剂治疗VaD的作用,它不但能改善认知功能,而且还对脑功能恢复也有一定的益处。     

Alzheimer型痴呆的单光子发射型计算机断层扫描脑血流量测定的研究

目的^99Tc^m-双半胱乙酯（^99Tc^m-ECD）单光子发射型计算机断层扫描（single photon emission computed tomography，SPECT）脑血流灌注显像测定Alzheimer型痴呆（dementia of Alzheimer type，DAT）患者脑血流量（CBF）的价值。方法用NINCDS—ADRDA（national institute of neurological and communicative disorders and strokeand the Alzheimer＇s disease and related disorders association）推荐的DAT诊断标准对以健忘为主诉来院检查的患者进行诊断，分为可能的DAT患者组（A组）14例，很有可能的DAT患者组（B组）21例，并设置正常对照组11例，进行^99Tc^m-ECDSPECT脑血流灌注显像，对其平均及局部CBF进行对比分析。结果B组DAT患者平均脑血流较正常对照有明显降低，局部脑血流表现为A组病人双侧顶叶、海马回、单侧颞叶中下回、颞极血流降低区；B组患者双侧额叶、颞叶、顶叶、枕叶血流明显下降。结论^99Tc^m-ECDSPECT脑血流灌注显像测定CBF是一种非侵袭性、简便可靠的方法，对DAT的诊断有一定的临床价值。     

Treatment of isolated systolic arterial hypertension and prevention of dementia in aged patients. The Syst-Eur multicenter study]

The aim of the vascular dementia project, set up in the framework of the double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial, was to investigate the influence of antihypertensive drug treatment on the incidence of vascular dementia. The study was run on non-demented patients, at least 60 years old, with isolated systolic hypertension (sitting blood pressure of 160-219 mmHg for systolic and below 95 mmHg for diastolic). Treatment was initiated with nitrendipine (10-40 mg/day) possibly associated with enalapril (5-20 mg/day) and/or hydrochlorothiazide (12.5-25 mg/day). Cognitive function was assessed at baseline and annually by the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). The diagnosis of dementia was based on the DSM-III-R criteria. The etiology of dementia was established using the Modified Ischemic Score or the Hachinski score when brain imaging was not available. Median follow-up by intention-to-treat was 2.0 years. The incidence of dementia was reduced by 50% from 7.7 per 1000 patient-years in the placebo group (number of patients 1,180) to 3.7 cases per 1000 p-a in the active treatment group (n = 1,238) (21 vs 11 patients, p = 0.05). At the last available evaluation, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were 8.3 mmHg and 3.8 mm Hg lower (p < or = 0.001) in the active-treatment group, but on average the MMSE scores remained stable in both groups. CONCLUSION: In older people with isolated systolic hypertension, antihypertensive treatment started with nitrendipine may reduce the incidence of dementia. At the rate observed in the placebo group, treating 1,000 patients for 5 years would prevent 19 cases of dementia.     

Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia: Neuropsychological Differentiation in Clinical Practice

Even when well-defined patient groups are studied, neuropsychological differentiation between Alzheimer's disease (dementia of the Alzheimer's type [DAT]) and vascular dementia (VaD) is far from clear. How useful are the results of these investigations when a differential diagnosis has to be established with non–pre-selected individual patients? In the present research we worked with a group of patients pre-diagnosed as having either DAT or VaD. Within the learning abilities, we focused on the status of the encoding system in each condition. Neuropsychological data were compared with PET data. We concluded that within certain limits a few neuropsychological data can contribute substantially to such differentiation, as long as they are contrasted with the rest of the relevant information available.     

EEG studies in Alzheimer dementia and multi-infarct dementia at various times of the day

From three men and seven women (mean age 70 years) with dementia of the Alzheimer-type (DAT), and from four men and six women (mean age 77 years) with multi-infarct dementia (MID) closed-eye EEGs were registered at 0800, 1200, 1600, and 2000 hours and recorded on tape for computer processing. The data of both groups were compared statistically and also compared with data of former investigations conducted with 10 healthy elderly volunteers and 10 patients who suffered from cerebral arteriosclerosis with serious disorder of sleep-walking rhythm (HA). Most pathological EEG deviations are found in the MID-patients, but there is no significant distinction compared to the DAT-patients, although three of the latter showed normal EEGs. Compared to the HA the EEGs of the MID-patients differed more from those of the healthy volunteers; however, the physiological circadian variations were not leveled as in the HA. Even in consideration of daytime dependent fluctuations of frequency-parameters, a clear-cut discrimination between DAT and MID by means of the EEG seems impossible.     

Leuko-araiosis and cerebral hypoperfusion compared in elderly normals and Alzheimer's dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the pathogenesis of leuko-araiosis in patients with Alzheimer's disease by utilizing CT densitometry of the brain and measurements of local perfusion in order to quantify the extent of leuko-araiosis and local hypoperfusion compared with similar measurements made among age-matched normal volunteers. DESIGN: Cross-sectional case-control study. SETTING: Out-patient visits to a specialized laboratory located in a large hospital facility. PATIENTS: Eighteen elderly patients with probable dementia of Alzheimer type (DAT, aged 71.8 +/- 5.1 years) and 17 neurologically and cognitively normal, age-matched volunteers (aged 68.2 +/- 9.6 years) were admitted to the study according to established criteria. INTERVENTION: None MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cerebral blood flow (mL/100 g brain/min) estimated by the xenon inhalation CT-CBF method correlated with volume percentage ratio (%) measured by CT densitometry for leuko-araiosis, compared to normal white and gray matter. RESULTS: Perfusion values for frontal and occipital white matter as well as frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortex were all decreased in DAT patients. Ratios for leuko-araiosis to total brain tissue volumes were greater among patients with DAT compared with age-matched normal volunteers. White matter perfusion in zones of leuko-araiosis was decreased to a similar degree in both DAT and elderly normal volunteers. CONCLUSIONS: Perfusion is reduced to the same degree in regions of leuko-araiosis in elderly normals as in DAT patients, but the extent of leuko-araiosis is greater among DAT patients and presumably contributes to cognitive impairments.     

Functional status and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's patients with and without depression

Cognitive impairment and depression each compromise functional status in the elderly, but it is not known whether their coexistence is associated with additive functional impairment. The effect of the presence or absence of a diagnosis of major depression on functional status was examined in a group of 50 community-residing patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT). Patients were diagnosed as depressed (N = 20) or not (N = 30) according to DSM-III criteria. Cognitive status was assessed with the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE), and functional status was assessed by family report of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). Consistent with previous reports, patients with a depression diagnosis were less cognitively impaired than their nondepressed counterparts. When cognitive status was controlled for, depression diagnosis was found to have a main effect on functional impairment. Although the direction of effects between depression and functional limitations was not determined here, these results suggest that alleviating depression may decrease functional limitations in DAT patients.     

Accuracy of collateral source reports in very mild to mild dementia of the Alzheimer type

OBJECTIVES: To examine the reporting accuracy of collateral sources (knowledgeable informants) regarding very mild and mild dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT) and to identify characteristics associated with collateral source accuracy. DESIGN: Secondary data analysis of initial visits of individuals enrolled in a longitudinal study of healthy aging and Alzheimer disease. SETTING: Urban Alzheimer disease research center. PARTICIPANTS: Pairs of 515 individuals with very mild (n = 203) or mild (n = 312) DAT and their collateral sources. MEASUREMENTS: Collateral sources were asked separately during a semistructured interview by experienced clinicians to report current ability of the individual with DAT in memory, orientation, and judgment and problem solving. The clinical performance of the individuals with DAT in these domains was compared with these predictions. RESULTS: Collateral sources were consistently and significantly accurate in reporting the cognitive capabilities of individuals with very mild and mild DAT. Although all types of collateral sources performed significantly better than chance, individual variables that correlated with collateral source accuracy included spousal relationship; living with the individual with DAT; frequent exposure to the individual; and age, education level, sex and dementia severity of the individual with DAT. CONCLUSION: Collateral sources are accurate in reporting the cognitive capabilities of individuals with DAT, even in the very mild stage of dementia.     

Walking exercise and improved neuropsychological functioning in elderly patients with cardiac disease

Abstract. Objectives . The present study examines the effects of exercise by walking on demented elderly patients with cardiac diseases. Design . Walking exercise, mental activity and brain atrophy were assessed by using the number of steps, Hasegawa's dementia score and computed tomography, respectively. Setting/subjects . Forty-six elderly patients with cardiac disease who were living in a metropolitan city. Interventions . The Hasegawa dementia score was determined for each patient. The memory scores were used to divide the patients into four groups: normal, > 30.0; subnormal, 30.0 ∽ 22.0; pre-dementia, 21.5 ? 10.5; and dementia, < 10.0. The walking exercises were performed every day. We also studied the ratio of the fullness of the brain (S₁) to head size (S), represented as a percentage (S₁/S × 100). We screened our patients for depression by means of a self-rating depression test. Main outcome measures . Walking exercise and improved mental activities. Results . The mean numbers of the steps per day for the groups were 3386 ± 676 (normal), 1008 ± 193 (subnormal), 1597 ± 661 (pre-dementia) and almost no walking (dementia). The mean values of the S₁/S ratio for the first three groups were as follows: normal, 84.8 ± 3.2; subnormal, 79.2 ± 4.3; and pre-dementia, 76.8 ± 4.9. Only one patient was positive with regard to the depression test. Conclusions . The mental activity of elderly cardiac patients with dementia and/or brain atrophy improved with exercise from walking.     

老年期痴呆74例脑CT径线测量与神经心理测评观察

目的观察老年期痴呆患者头颅CT与神经心理测评的特点。方法通过Hackinski缺血指数表区分血管性痴呆（VD）及阿尔茨海默病（AD）,将有关的头颅CT径线和神经心理测评量表进行对比。结果①AD组和VD组头颅CT扫描各径线比较,差异具有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。②AD组和VD组简易智力状态检查表（MMSE）总分比较有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。AD和VD组与对照组比较,部分MMSE因子分差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05或P〈0.01）。③AD组和VD组小脑沟条数差异具有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论 AD组大脑萎缩及痴呆程度重于VD组,而小脑萎缩则不尽然。结合CT检查和神经心理测评仍是鉴别VD及AD的有效方法 。     

Caregiver characteristics are associated with neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether caregiver characteristics are independently associated with neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia (NPS) after accounting for patient characteristics. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of data from the Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration and Evaluation study. SETTING: Community-dwelling residents in eight U.S. cities. PARTICIPANTS: Five thousand seven hundred eighty-eight patients with dementia and their caregivers. MEASUREMENTS: Caregivers were asked about the presence of 12 NPS in patients with dementia. Caregiver predictors included age, sex, education, income, marital status, relationship to the patient, whether they lived with patient, number of hours per week spent caregiving, self-reported health, dependency in activities of daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), depression, and burden. Multivariate linear regression was used to determine which caregiver characteristics were independently associated with reports of more NPS in patients after controlling for the patient's age, sex, dementia severity, level of ADL dependency, and dementia type. RESULTS: Caregivers were on average 64 years old, 72% female, and 49% were the spouse of the patient (32% wives, 17% husbands). The mean burden score of caregivers was 15 (range 0-32, with higher scores indicating more burden), and 32% had significant depressive symptoms. Patients were on average 79 years old, 60% were female, and most had moderate to severe dementia. The mean number of NPS+/-standard deviation was 4.8+/-2.8. After adjusting for patient characteristics, caregivers who were younger, less educated, more depressed, more burdened, or spent more hours per week giving care reported more NPS in care recipients (all P< or =.005). CONCLUSION: Certain caregiver characteristics are associated with NPS, independent of patient characteristics, including dementia severity. Clinicians should consider the dynamics between patients and caregivers when managing NPS. Understanding how different caregiver characteristics influence NPS may help tailor caregiver education and interventions.     

疑诊肺栓塞患者337例中合并下肢深静脉血栓的发生率

目的 评价疑诊肺栓塞患者中合并下肢深静脉血栓的发生率.方法 顺序收集2004年1月至2006年6月在北京首都医科大学附属朝阳医院和宁夏医学院附属医院内疑诊肺栓塞的患者,进行CT肺动脉造影(CTPA)联合下肢CT静脉造影检查(CTV)或CTPA联合下肢静脉超声检查.分析肺栓塞患者中合并下肢深静脉血栓的发生率以及下肢深静脉血栓的发生部位有无不同.采用SPSS 11.5统计软件进行数据分析,描述性结果采用频数分析法,组间比较采用卡方检验.结果 共337例患者纳入研究,男189例,女148例,中位年龄62岁,范围19～84岁.CTPA诊断肺栓塞者144例,CTV和下肢超声检查诊断下肢深静脉血栓患者100例.肺栓塞患者合并下肢深静脉血栓的发生率为44%(63/144),其中76%(48/63)发生于近端深静脉内;而下肢深静脉血栓形成患者中合并肺栓塞的发生率为63%(63/100).结论 无论肺栓塞患者合并下肢深静脉血栓,还是下肢深静脉血栓患者合并肺栓塞的发生率均很高,有必要同时进行肺动脉和下肢深静脉检查.