Musculocutaneous neurotization to restore elbow flexion in brachial plexus paralysis

Brachial plexus injuries may result in devastating paralysis, especially if they involve all the roots. The upper roots are often traumatized, and therefore elbow flexion is usually lost. The prognosis of these injuries is grave if root avulsions are present and the paralysis includes the hand as well. The current management of brachial plexus injuries should be early, aggressive microsurgical reconstruction of the plexus, combining various neurotizations with intraplexus and extraplexus nerve donors. Following this principle, we present the results of musculocutaneous neurotization in our unit, as well as a review of the literature on this subject. Our results are comparable to those reported in the literature, and indicate that the strongest function is achieved after neurotization via intraplexus donors, while some extraplexus donors (i.e., phrenic and accessory nerve) can offer equally strong elbow flexion, especially if they are used in combination. Neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve should be one of the primary goals in the reconstruction of the injured plexus, since the return of elbow flexion is of paramount importance in daily activity. The restoration of function is ensured if the stronger and healthier motor donors are dedicated to the neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve. Sometimes in order to match the axonal number of the target to the lower number of axons offered by the donors, two or more donor nerves may be driven to the same target, such as the musculocutaneous nerve.     

Outcomes of surgical treatment of brachial plexus injuries using nerve grafting and nerve transfers

Between 1993 and 1998, 32 male patients with brachial plexus injuries were surgically treated. Eighteen interfascicular grafting and 71 extraplexal neurotization procedures were performed separately or in combination. Donor nerves were the intercostals, spinal accessory, phrenic, contralateral C7, and cervical plexus, in order of frequency. Patients were followed for a minimum of 24 (average, 35) months. Biceps function was best following grafting the musculocutaneous nerve itself, or neurotization with the phrenic nerve (100 percent grade 4), followed by neurotization with the intercostals (89.5 percent grade 3 or more) and last, grafting the C5 root or upper trunk (grade 3 in one of three patients). Phrenic to suprascapular neurotization produced the best results of shoulder abduction (40 to 90 degrees), followed by combined neurotization of the spinal accessory to suprascapular and phrenic to axillary (20 to 90 degrees). Sensory recovery over the lateral forearm and palm varied from S2 to S3+, according to the method of reconstruction.     

Clinical results of contralateral C7 root neurotization to the median nerve in brachial plexus injuries with total root avulsions

This prospective study was carried out to assess motor and sensory recovery after contralateral C7 root to median nerve neurotization in brachial plexus injuries with total root avulsions. The survey was carried out from 1993 to 1995 and the patients were followed up for at least 3 years. There were 96 male patients with ages ranging from 13 to 48 years. All had a unilateral brachial plexus injury with avulsion of all roots. This was confirmed by clinical assessment and exploration. The anterior part of the contralateral C7 root was used for neurotization via a reversed pedicular ulnar nerve graft and the proximal end of the graft was connected to the median nerve. Furthermore, phrenic nerve to suprascapular nerve and spinal accessory nerve (via a sural nerve graft) to musculocutaneous nerve neurotizations were also carried out to obtain shoulder abduction and elbow flexion. At the 3 year follow-up, most patients had encouraging recovery of sensory function in the hand but motor function of the forearm and hand muscles was rather poor. Acceptable motor function was found in only 50 to 60% of the patients who were younger than 18 years.     

胸腔镜下切取膈神经移位重建全臂丛根性撕脱伤手部功能初步报告

目的探讨胸腔镜下膈神经超长切取、移位重建全臂丛根性撕脱伤手部功能的可行性。方法全臂丛根性撕脱伤3例,胸腔镜下于邻膈肌处切断膈神经,逆行游离胸腔内全长膈神经及其血管组织蒂,并由第二肋间引出,经胸大肌下移位至上臂上内侧,分别与尺神经前内侧部吻合2例,与移植股薄肌之闭孔神经前支吻合1例。结果2例膈神经联合第3～6肋间神经运动支移位修复尺神经者,结合短期免疫抑制剂FK506口服治疗,术后12个月手内肌肌电图检测均出现再生电位,1例随访15个月出现手内肌收缩。1例用以重建屈肘、屈指屈拇的移植股薄肌术后7月出现肌肉收缩,随访12个月肌力达M3。结论胸腔镜下全长切取膈神经,作为运动性动力神经移位应用于全臂丛根性撕脱伤的治疗,可在短时间内有效重建屈指屈拇功能,并有使手内肌神经再支配、开始恢复手内肌收缩功能的迹象。     

全长膈神经移位重建屈指功能的临床报告

目的 探讨在胸腔镜视下切取全长膈神经直接移位至正中神经内侧头重建全臂丛撕脱伤后屈指功能的可行性,为全臂丛根性撕脱伤后屈指功能的恢复提供新思路.方法 对3例全臂丛根性撕脱伤的患者,采用胸腔镜视下游离胸腔内的全长膈神经,于入膈肌处切断膈神经,将全长膈神经直接移位于正中神经内侧头,术后每3个月随访肺功能和临床功能恢复情况.结果 3例患者随访时间均超过3年,拇长屈肌及2～5指指浅屈肌肌力均恢复至3～4级,掌长肌肌力2例为2级,1例为1级;桡侧腕屈肌、旋前圆肌、鱼际肌肌力为0级.肺功能显示患者在术后6个月内有不同程度的肺功能降低,但在1年内都恢复到术前水平.结论 胸腔镜视下切取全长膈神经直接移位至正中神经内侧头重建全臂丛撕脱伤后的屈指功能是一种可行的新术式.     

臂丛下干损伤不同修复术式的疗效比较

目的评价臂丛神经下干损伤不同修复术式的疗效。方法研究并比较26例臂丛神经下干损伤患者用3种不同神经移位修复正中神经后的疗效。A组:肌皮神经肱肌支移位(6例),B组:健侧C7移位(10例),C组:肋间神经移位(10例)。术后平均随访15个月,观察正中神经功能恢复情况,并测定其握力、肌力和正中神经的运动神经传导速度(MNCV)和复合肌肉动作电位(CMAP)的潜伏期和波幅。结果A组5例能完成屈指动作,1例仅随访6个月屈指动作尚未恢复。B组5例能完成屈指动作,5例不能。C组6例能完成屈指动作,4例不能。术后3、6、12个月的握力和肌力,A组与B、C组相比差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);B、C组相比差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。术后3、6、12个月,A组正中神经CMAP的潜伏期较B、C组增快、波幅增高(P<0.05);正中神经的MNCV快于B、C组(P<0.05),B、C组相比差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论肌皮神经肱肌支移位,由于神经再生至正中神经支配靶肌肉的距离比健侧C7和肋间神经短,故其屈指功能的恢复明显好于B、C组。     

膈神经副神经肌电图检查对提高臂丛神经根性损伤诊断符合率的机制和意义

目的阐明膈神经、副神经肌电图检查对提高臂丛神经根性损伤诊断符合率的机制和意义。方法对１００例术中证实为全臂丛或上中干根性损伤的术前肌电图资料（包括膈神经、副神经和臂丛神经）进行分析，总结Ｃ５神经根性损伤中节前、后的发生率，术前诊断符合率及膈神经、副神经的功能。结果１００例臂丛神经根性损伤中，Ｃ５神经根性损伤的诊断符合率为８７％，比过去提高３１．９％；节后损伤的诊断符合率为８１．９％，提高３０．８％。膈神经、副神经完全损伤者Ｃ５神经根均为节前损伤。膈神经完全损伤１３例，不全损伤７例中５例（７１．４％）为节前损伤；副神经完全损伤５例，不全损伤１４例中８例（５７．１％）为节前损伤。结论对膈神经、副神经进行肌电图检测，可提高Ｃ５神经根性损伤的术前诊断符合率；并可判断膈神经、副神经的功能是否适合作神经移位术的动力神经     

Nerve repairs for traumatic brachial plexus palsy with root avulsion

Thirty-six patients with traumatic brachial plexus lesions and root avulsions were treated surgically between 1972 and 1986 and were followed for more than 24 months (average, 42.6 months). Neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve with intercostal nerves or the spinal accessory nerve resulted in satisfactory elbow flexion in 21 of the 33 cases (64%). Combined nerve repairs (i.e., intercostal and spinal accessory neurotization of the terminal branch of the brachial plexus in combination with nerve grafts from the upper spinal nerves of the brachial plexus) created a useful function in at least one functional level of the upper limb for 11 of the 15 cases so treated. Nerve repairs resulted in stability of the shoulder and elbow function controllable with a sensible hand for patients with root avulsion injury of the brachial plexus.     

Neurotization in brachial plexus injuries. Indication and results

In neurotization or nerve transfer, a healthy but less valuable nerve or its proximal stump is transferred in order to reinnervate a more important sensory or motor territory that has lost its innervation through irreparable damage to its nerve. In brachial plexus injuries, extraplexal nerves such as the spinal accessory nerve, rami of the cervical plexus, or intercostal nerves are transferred onto trunks, cords, or individual nerves or else segments of the brachial plexus that maintain continuity with the spinal cord may be coapted to trunks or cords the surgeon wishes to innervate. This method is particularly indicated in root avulsion injuries that occur frequently following traction trauma to the brachial plexus. The authors convey their experience with neurotization using the long thoracic nerve in seven cases, the accessory nerve in 30 cases, intercostal nerves in 66 cases, and various nerve transfers within the plexus in 31 cases. Results of other authors are also reported. With these methods, it is possible to obtain good elbow flexion in more than one-half of patients; however, only limited shoulder function and no useful finger function are obtained.     

Surgical outcomes following nerve transfers in upper brachial plexus injuries

Background:

Brachial plexus injuries represent devastating injuries with a poor prognosis. Neurolysis, nerve repair, nerve grafts, nerve transfer, functioning free-muscle transfer and pedicle muscle transfer are the main surgical procedures for treating these injuries. Among these, nerve transfer or neurotization is mainly indicated in root avulsion injury.

Materials and Methods:

We analysed the results of various neurotization techniques in 20 patients (age group 20-41 years, mean 25.7 years) in terms of denervation time, recovery time and functional results. The inclusion criteria for the study included irreparable injuries to the upper roots of brachial plexus (C5, C6 and C7 roots in various combinations), surgery within 10 months of injury and a minimum follow-up period of 18 months. The average denervation period was 4.2 months. Shoulder functions were restored by transfer of spinal accessory nerve to suprascapular nerve (19 patients), and phrenic nerve to suprascapular nerve (1 patient). In 11 patients, axillary nerve was also neurotized using different donors - radial nerve branch to the long head triceps (7 patients), intercostal nerves (2 patients), and phrenic nerve with nerve graft (2 patients). Elbow flexion was restored by transfer of ulnar nerve motor fascicle to the motor branch of biceps (4 patients), both ulnar and median nerve motor fascicles to the biceps and brachialis motor nerves (10 patients), spinal accessory nerve to musculocutaneous nerve with an intervening sural nerve graft (1 patient), intercostal nerves (3rd, 4th and 5th) to musculocutaneous nerve (4 patients) and phrenic nerve to musculocutaneous nerve with an intervening graft (1 patient).

Results:

Motor and sensory recovery was assessed according to Medical Research Council (MRC) Scoring system. In shoulder abduction, five patients scored M4 and three patients M3+. Fair results were obtained in remaining 12 patients. The achieved abduction averaged 95 degrees (range, 50 - 170 degrees). Eight patients scored M4 power in elbow flexion and assessed as excellent results. Good results (M3+) were obtained in seven patients. Five patients had fair results (M2+ to M3).     

儿童创伤性臂丛神经撕脱伤的屈指功能重建

目的 观察健侧C_7,经椎体前通路移位与下干直接吻合,重建儿童创伤性臂从神经撕脱伤屈指功能的效果.方法 健侧C_7,在其前后股的远端切断,向近端游离至椎间孔,经椎体前通路牵至患侧.游离患侧臂丛下干及内侧束,切断下干后股及胸前内侧神经.将正中神经、尺神经及前臂内侧皮神经自内侧束的起始处一直游离到上臂中段.息肩前屈、内收至0°位,肘关节屈曲90°,上提患侧下干并与健侧C_7,直接吻合.2004年8月至2008年3月对20例患儿进行了健侧C_7,与患侧下干或内侧束直接吻合术.其中男16例,女4例;年龄5-18岁,平均13岁;伤后到手术时间1-11个月,平均4.6个月.全臂丛撕脱伤13例,中、下干撕脱伤7例.为减少吻合口张力,11例进行了肱骨短缩,短缩长度2.5-4.5 cm,平均(3.1±0.7)cm.结果 术后患者随访时间12-51个月,平均 27.4个月.屈指肌力4级18例,2级2例;屈拇长肌力4级10例、3级8例、2级2例.小指展肌肌力3级l例,2级1例;拇短展肌肌力3级1例.结论 健侧C_7,与患侧下干直接吻合,由于只有一个吻 合口及缩短了神经再生的距离,其重建屈指、屈拇功能的效果满意,并可恢复手内在肌的部分功能.     

Repair of brachial plexus lesions by end-to-side side-to-side grafting neurorrhaphy: experience based on 11 cases

Eleven brachial plexus lesions were repaired using end-to-side side-to-side grafting neurorrhaphy in root ruptures, in phrenic and spinal accessory nerve neurotizations, in contralateral C7 neurotization, and in neurotization using intact interplexus roots or cords. The main aim was to approximate donor and recipient nerves and promote regeneration through them. Another indication was to augment the recipient nerve, when it had been neurotized or grafted to donors of dubious integrity, when it was not completely denervated, when it had been neurotized to a nerve with a suboptimal number of fibers, when it had been neurotized to distant donors delaying its regeneration, and when it had been neurotized to a donor supplying many recipients. In interplexus neurotization, the main indication was to preserve the integrity of the interplexus donors, as they were not sacrificeable. The principles of end-to-side neurorrhaphy were followed. The epineurium was removed. Axonal sprouting was induced by longitudinally slitting and partially transecting the donor and recipient nerves, by increasing the contact area between both of them and the nerve grafts, and by embedding the grafts into the split predegenerated injured nerve segments. Agonistic donors were used for root ruptures and for phrenic and spinal accessory neurotization, but not for contralateral C7 or interplexus neurotization. Single-donor single-recipient neurotization was successfully followed in phrenic neurotization of the suprascapular (3 cases) and axillary (1 case) nerves, spinal accessory neurotization of the suprascapular nerve (1 case), and dorsal part of contralateral C7 neurotization of the axillary nerve (2 cases). Apart from this, recipient augmentation necessitated many donor to single-recipient neurotizations. This was successfully performed using phrenic-interplexus root to suprascapular transfers (2 cases), phrenic-contralateral C7 to suprascapular transfer (1 case), and spinal accessory-interplexus root to musculocutaneous transfer (1 case). Both recipient augmentation and increasing the contact area between grafts and recipients necessitated single or multiple donor to many recipient neurotizations. This was applied in root ruptures (3 cases), with results comparable to those obtained in classical nerve-grafting techniques. It was also applied in ventral C7 transfer to the lateral or medial cords (3 cases) with functional recovery occurring in the biceps and pronator teres muscles, but not in dorsal C7 transfer to the axillary and radial nerves (3 cases) with functional recovery occurring in the deltoid and triceps muscles, and in whole C7 transfer to C5, 6, 7, 8T1 roots with functional recovery occurring in the deltoid (M4), biceps (M4), pronator teres (M4), and triceps (M3) (3 cases), and less so in the flexor carpi ulnaris and FDP (M3) (1 case) and the extensor digitorum longus (M3) (1 case). Contralateral C7 transfer to the lateral and posterior cords (4 cases) was followed by cocontractions that took 1 year to improve and that involved the rotator cuff, deltoid, biceps, and pronator teres (all agonists). Functional recovery in the triceps muscle was less than in the above muscles. Contralateral C7 transfer to C5-7 (1 case) was followed by cocontractions that took 1 year to resolve and that occurred between the deltoid, biceps, and flexor digitorum profundus. Interplexus root neurotization was done only in conjunction with other neurotization techniques, and so its role is difficult to judge. Though the same applies to regenerated lateral cord transfer to the posterior cord (2 cases), the successful results obtained from medial cord neurotization to the axillary, musculocutaneous, and radial nerves (1 case), and from ulnar and median nerve neurotization to the radial nerve (1 case), show that neurotization at the interplexus cord level may play a role in brachial plexus regeneration and may even be used to neurotize nerves and muscles distal to the elbow. The timing of repair was within 6 months after injury, except for 2 cases. In the first case, contralateral C7 transfer was successfully performed more than 1 year after injury. The second case was an obstetric palsy operated upon at age 8. Deterioration in motor power of the donor muscles that improved in 6 months was observed in 2 cases of interplexus neurotization at the cord level, because of looping the sural nerve grafts tightly around the donor nerves. Deterioration in donor-muscle motor power as a consequence of end-to-side neurorrhaphy was noted in the obstetric palsy case, when the flexor carpi radialis (donor) became grade 3 instead of grade 4. This was associated with cocontractions between it and the extensors. It took nearly 1 year to improve.     

膈神经端侧吻合移位治疗肌皮神经损伤的实验研究

目的 研究膈神经端侧吻合移位至肌皮神经治疗臂丛神经撕脱伤的可行性.方法 取雄性SD大鼠51只,随机分成4组:A组,单侧全臂丛神经撕脱组;B组,膈神经端端吻合组;C组,膈神经端侧吻合组;D组,膈神经螺旋状端侧吻合组(B、C、D组膈神经均移植2.0 cm腓肠神经至肌皮神经).并于术后进行肢体功能、组织学和神经电生理检测.另取绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein,GFP)转基因F344大鼠9只,通过荧光显微镜观察膈神经轴突再生情况.方果 各实验组术后手术侧肢体功能逐渐恢复,术后神经电生理和组织学检测表明,术后3个月,C、D组左侧肱二头肌肌张力恢复率和肌湿重恢复率,分别为B组的76.4%和86.3%、85.6%和87.7%,即端侧吻合组肱二头肌功能达到端端吻合组的80%以上,同时保留了膈肌的功能.荧光显微镜观察发现膈神经轴突通过端侧吻合口长入移植神经.方论 膈神经端侧吻合治疗臂丛神经损伤的手术方法是有效、可行的.     

健侧C7椎体前移位联合多组神经移位治疗全臂丛神经根性撕脱伤

目的：探讨健侧C7神经根椎体前移位并联合多组神经移位治疗全臂丛神经根性撕脱伤的方法和疗效。方法对20例全臂丛根性撕脱伤患者采用健侧C7神经根、膈神经、副神经及健侧C7修复患侧下干后形成新的动力神经：臂内侧皮神经、前臂内侧皮神经、下干后股移位修复患侧下干、肌皮神经、肩胛上神经、腋神经、桡神经、正中神经内侧头。并进行长期随访,观察肩外展、屈肘、屈指和伸腕伸指及手部感觉功能恢复的情况。结果20例中有17例获得随访,随访时间20～72个月（平均38个月）。肩外展平均39°,有效率（肌力M2以上）71%,优良率（肌力在M3以上）59％;屈肘平均77°,有效率83%,优良率53％;屈指、屈拇功能恢复：10例指屈肌力≥M2,有效率为59%（10/17）,其中7例肌力≥M3,优良率为42%;伸肘恢复有效率（肌力M2以上）59%,优良率42%;伸指有效率47%,优良率36%。结论健侧C7神经根椎体前移位并联合多组神经移位治疗全臂丛神经根性撕脱伤是有效的治疗方法之一。     

Phrenic nerve neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve with end-to-side neurorrhaphy: a short report in a rabbit model

This experimental study was performed to evaluate the efficacy of end-to-side coaptation between the musculocutaneous nerve and the phrenic nerve for brachial plexus injuries with nerve-root avulsions. In an experimental rabbit model, neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve with the phrenic nerve was compared using end-to-end and end-to-side neurorrhaphy. Preliminary results from electrophysiologic and histologic examinations indicate that end-to-side neurotization of the musculocutaneous nerve with the phrenic nerve is an effective means for musculocutaneous nerve repair. The effectiveness of the phrenic nerve is attributed to its large number of motor axons.     

Restoration of Elbow Flexion by Transfer of the Phrenic Nerve to Musculocutaneous Nerve after Brachial Plexus Injuries

Traumatic brachial plexus injuries are a devastating injury that results in partial or total denervation of the muscles of the upper extremity. Treatment options that include neurolysis, nerve grafting, or neurotization (nerve transfer) has become an important procedure in the restoration of function in patients with irreparable preganglionic lesions. Restoration of elbow flexion is the primary goal in treating patients with severe brachial plexus injuries. Nerve transfers are used when spinal roots are avulsed, and proximal stumps are not available. In the present study, we analyze the results obtained in 20 patients treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer to restore elbow flexion after brachial plexus injuries. A consecutive series of 25 adult patients (21 men and 4 women) with a brachial plexus traction/crush lesion were treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer, but only 20 patients (18 men and 2 women) were followed and evaluated for at least 2 years postoperatively. All patients had been referred from other institutions. At the initial evaluation, eight patients received a diagnosis of C5-6 brachial plexus nerve injury, and in the other 12 patients, a complete brachial plexus injury was identified. Reconstruction was undertaken if no clinical or electrical evidence of biceps muscle function was seen by 3 months post injury. Functional elbow flexion was obtained in the majority of cases by phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer (14/20, 70%). At the final follow-up evaluation, elbow flexion strength was a Medical Research Council Grade 5 in two patients, Grade 4 in four patients, Grade 3 in eight patients, and Grade 2 or less in six patients. Transfer involving the phrenic nerve to restore elbow flexion seems to be an appropriate approach for the treatment of brachial plexus root avulsion. Traumatic brachial plexus injury is a devastating injury that result in partial or total denervation of the muscles of the upper extremity. Treatment options include neurolysis, nerve grafting, or neurotization (nerve transfer). Neurotization is the transfer of a functional but less important nerve to a denervated more important nerve. It has become an important procedure in the restoration of function in patients with irreparable preganglionic lesions. Restoration of elbow flexion is the primary goal in treating patients with severe brachial plexus injuries. Nerve transfers are used when spinal roots are avulsed, and proximal stumps are not available. Newer extraplexal sources include the ipsilateral phrenic nerve as reported by Gu et al. (Chin Med J 103:267–270, 1990) and contralateral C7 as reported by Gu et al. (J Hand Surg [Br] 17(B):518–521, 1992) and Songcharoen et al. (J Hand Surg [Am] 26(A):1058–1064, 2001). These nerve transfers have been introduced to expand on the limited donors. The phrenic nerve and its anatomic position directly within the surgical field makes it a tempting source for nerve transfer. Although not always, in cases of complete brachial plexus avulsion, the phrenic nerve is functioning as a result of its C3 and C4 major contributions. In the present study, we analyze the results obtained in 20 patients treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer to restore elbow flexion after brachial plexus injuries.     

Phrenic nerve transfer for brachial plexus motor neurotization

We report a series of 164 patients who underwent phrenic neurotization to elements of the brachial plexus with root avulsion injuries. Recipient nerves included musculocutaneous nerve in 125 patients (78 direct neurotizations and 48 with intervening autograft), median nerve in 10 patients, and a variety of other nerves in 28 patients. Sixty-five patients presented a follow-up period of 2 or more years. Of this group, 55 patients (84.6%) achieved a recovery of M-3 or better. We observed no long-term deleterious effects on respiratory function.     

Contralateral C7 transfer for the treatment of brachial plexus root avulsions in children - a report of 12 cases

PURPOSE: To retrospectively determine the risks and benefits of contralateral C7 nerve root transfer in infants and children. METHODS: In 12 infants and children with brachial plexus root avulsions from birth injury or other trauma, the common trunk of the contralateral C7 root was transferred to the trunk, division, cord, or nerve branch(es) on the affected side with 2 different types of interposition grafts. The surgery was performed in 1 stage for 5 patients and in 2 stages for 7 patients. RESULTS: Patients were followed up for a mean of 42 months, with a minimum of 21 months. Noteworthy function (> or = M2+, modified British Medical Research Council grading system) was gained in 10 of 12 patients and sensory function (> or = S3, British Medical Research Council grading system) was gained in all patients. Improvements in strength and sensation were accompanied by little synchronous motion and sensibility changes in the donor limb in 7 children, to whom the repaired nerves were those innervating the shoulder and/or elbow or both the musculocutaneous and median nerves. In addition to slight damage to the sensory function of the median nerve, 2 infants also had temporarily reduced shoulder abduction on the healthy side. CONCLUSIONS: For contralateral C7 transfer in infants and children with brachial plexus root avulsions, the deficit created by the procedure is minimal and motor and sensory function is gained. Transfer of the contralateral C7 root to different nerves for a child may improve the quality of functional recovery. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, Level IV.     

Total obstetric brachial plexus palsy: Results and strategy of microsurgical reconstruction

From 2000 to 2006, 35 infants with total obstetric brachial plexus palsy underwent brachial plexus exploration and reconstruction. The mean age at surgery was 10.8 months (range 3–60 months), and the median age was 8 months. All infants were followed for at least 2.5 years (range 2.5–7.3 years) with an average follow‐up of 4.2 years. Assessment was performed using the Toronto Active Movement scale. Surgical procedures included neurolysis, neuroma excision and interposition nerve grafting and neurotization, using spinal accessory nerve, intercostals and contralateral C7 root. Satisfactory recovery was obtained in 37.1% of cases for shoulder abduction; 54.3% for shoulder external rotation; 75.1% for elbow flexion; 77.1% for elbow extension; 61.1% for finger flexion, 31.4% for wrist extension and 45.8% for fingers extension. Using the Raimondi score, 18 cases (53%) achieved a score of three or more (functional hand). The mean Raimondi score significantly improved postoperatively as compared to the preoperative mean: 2.73 versus 1, and showed negative significant correlation with age at surgery. In total, obstetrical brachial plexus palsy, early intervention is recommended. Intercostal neurotization is preferred for restoration of elbow flexion. Tendon transfer may be required to improve external rotation in selected cases. Apparently, intact C8 and T1 roots should be left alone if the patient has partial hand recovery, no Horner syndrome, and was operated early (3‐ or 4‐months old). Apparently, intact nonfunctioning lower roots with no response to electrical stimulation, especially in the presence of Horner syndrome, should be neurotized with the best available intraplexal donor. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2010.     

膈神经移位治疗臂丛损伤的临床应用和早期疗效

目的探讨膈神经移位至肌皮神经重建屈肘功能的临床应用及早期疗效。方法对8例臂丛根性撕脱伤行膈神经移位术，膈神经与上干前股的肌皮神经束直接吻合5例，膈神经通过神经移植桥接至肌皮神经3例，术后随访评定其屈肘功能。结果8例经10月-2年随访，肱二头肌肌力在2级以上5例，有效率62．5％。结论膈神经移位术是治疗臂丛根性撕脱伤的理想术式，重视术前和术中膈神经功能的评估、神经移位时吻合方法的合理选择和术后综合康复锻炼是提高手术疗效关键。