意外胆囊癌:附15例报告

目的 探讨意外胆囊癌的诊断和处理方法 .方法 回顾性分析近10年来2所医院15例意外胆囊癌患者的临床资料.结果 开腹手术发现8例,腹腔镜胆囊切除术发现7例,其中Nevin Ⅰ期3例,Ⅱ期9例,Ⅲ期2例,Ⅳ期1例.其中10例首次手术中施行根治术,3例术后确诊再行根治术,另2例Ⅰ期患者行单纯胆囊切除术后病理诊断为癌,未再行手术.Ⅰ、Ⅱ期均随访2年以上仍存活,Ⅲ期病例均术后2年内复发死亡,Ⅳ期半年内死亡.结论 早期胆囊癌术前诊断困难,重视其高危因素,术中对可疑病例行快速冰冻切片检查有助于诊断;根治性手术为胆囊癌最有效治疗方法.     

腹腔镜手术意外胆囊癌的处理

目的探讨在腹腔镜胆囊切除术（laparoscopic cholecystectomy，LC）中意外发现的胆囊癌的治疗方法。方法对17例LC时意外发现的胆囊癌者的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果11例NevinⅠ，Ⅱ期患者行单纯LC；1例Ⅲ期和3例Ⅳ期患者行LC＋局部淋巴结清扫术；2例Ⅳ期患者行胆囊切除术。全组意外胆囊癌的发生率为0．6％。Ⅰ，Ⅱ期患者术后最长随访5年，未见复发；Ⅲ期1例术后1．5年复发，再次手术；而Ⅳ，Ⅴ期的病例预后较差，均于1年内死亡。结论Ⅰ，Ⅱ期的意外胆囊癌行LC可达到根治目的。Ⅲ期的需行胆囊癌根治术，如术中做到切缘镜下无瘤可望提高生存率。Ⅴ期应采用局部清扫＋肝脏楔形切除术进行治疗。     

意外胆囊癌手术治疗七例分析

目的探讨在腹腔镜切除(LC)术中意外发现胆囊癌的处理方法。方法回顾性分析2009年7月至2012年1月221例行LC的患者中,术中意外发现胆囊癌患者7例的临床资料及治疗方法。结果全组意外胆囊癌的发生率为3.17%。未发现NevinⅠ期病例,Ⅱ期患者2例行单纯LC,3例Ⅲ期和1例Ⅳ期患者行LC+局部淋巴结清扫术,1例Ⅴ期患者中转开腹行胆囊切除加T管引流术。Ⅱ期患者术后最长随访3年未见复发,Ⅲ期患者有3例,2例随访2年无复发,1例1年后复发再次行T管外引流+胃空肠吻合术,随访至今半年仍健在。而Ⅳ期患者预后较差,于半年内死亡。结论Ⅰ、Ⅱ期的意外胆囊癌行LC可达到根治目的。Ⅲ、Ⅳ期的患者,对于熟练掌握腔镜技术的术者可以行LC+局部淋巴结清扫术,术中做到无瘤的原则,可以提高胆囊癌的预后。     

胆囊癌50例诊治体会

目的 探讨胆囊癌的诊断、手术治疗及预后.方法 对2002年7月至2012年7月收治的50例胆囊癌的临床资料进行回顾性分析.结果 经术中或术后病检确诊.按美国癌症联合委员会(AJCC)分期,0期、Ⅰa期6例,经单纯胆囊切除后均生存超过5年;2例Ⅰb期患者行单纯胆囊切除,1年内生存者1例,5年内2例均死亡;3例Ⅰb期患者行根治术,2例生存5年以上;12例Ⅱ期患者行根治术,术后5年生存率为 50.0%;8例Ⅲa期患者行根治术,5年生存率为 37.5%,其中 50.0% 于3年内死亡;Ⅲb期、Ⅳ期共19例,其中16例于1年内死亡.结论 为提高胆囊癌生存率及患者生活质量,AJCC 0期、Ⅰa期行单纯胆囊切除即可.Ⅰb期、Ⅱ期、Ⅲ期需根据患者情况行根治术及扩大根治术,Ⅳ期应仅行提高患者生存质量的姑息性手术或其他治疗.     

意外胆囊癌的临床处理与预后分析

目的 总结意外胆囊癌的临床病理特点、诊断与治疗方案的选择,分析与预后有关的因素,指导意外胆囊癌的规范化治疗.方法 回顾性分析北京协和医院1999年1月至2009年10月收住院治疗的27例意外胆囊癌的临床资料,应用Kaplan-Meier法对比单纯胆囊切除术组、胆囊癌根治术组以及NevinⅠ、Ⅱ期与Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ期患者的累积生存率,对意外胆囊癌的治疗方法与预后进行分析.结果 27例患者以胆囊良性疾病的术前诊断行胆囊切除术,术前诊断以急慢性胆囊炎、胆囊结石和胆囊息肉为主.术后病理学检查证实为胆囊癌,其中低分化腺癌9例,中分化腺癌9例,高分化腺癌4例,腺瘤癌变5例.按Nevin分期,Ⅰ期2例,Ⅱ期5例,Ⅲ期8例,Ⅳ期5例,Ⅴ期7例.胆囊癌根治术组患者累积生存率好于单纯胆囊切除术组(x2=4.450,P=0.035);Nevin Ⅰ、Ⅱ期患者预后显著优于Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ期(x2=6.825,P=0.014).结论 意外胆囊癌临床表现缺乏特异性,容易导致误诊,术中快速病理切片检查是明确诊断的重要方法,确诊后首选根治性切除术.     

腹腔镜手术中意外胆囊癌的临床处理分析

目的:探讨在腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)中意外发现胆囊癌的治疗方法。方法:对14例LC时意外发现的胆囊癌患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果:4例NevinⅠ、Ⅱ期患者行单纯LC,2例Ⅲ期和3例Ⅳ期患者行LC中转开腹+局部淋巴结清扫术+肝脏楔形切除术,5例Ⅴ期患者行胆囊姑息性切除术。全组意外胆囊癌的发生率为0.06%。结论:Ⅰ期的意外胆囊癌行LC可达到根治目的,Ⅱ期行胆囊切除+肝脏部分切除+术后化疗,Ⅲ、Ⅳ期需行胆囊癌根治术,Ⅴ期根据情况行胆囊切除或姑息手术。     

不同分期胆囊癌的外科术式选择

目的探讨不同分期胆囊癌的外科治疗方式及其疗效。方法74例手术治疗胆囊癌患者根据不同TNM分期采取相应的手术方式：7例Ⅱ、Ⅲ期病例行单纯胆囊切除;24例Ⅲ期患者行胆囊癌根治术;35例ⅣA、ⅣB期病例行胆囊癌扩大切除术;另8例Ⅳ期胆囊癌因肝门部骨化合并梗阻性黄疸行IVb段肝切除＋胆囊切除＋胆肠吻合。其中10例ⅣB期病例附加腹腔动脉、胰头周围淋巴结酒精注射,9例ⅣB期病例附加I131粒子植入;35例胆囊癌扩大切除患者均附加肝段切除术;3例附加横结肠切除吻合;2例附加门静脉部分切除,4例附加肝右动脉切除。结果围手术期死亡1例;发生胆漏3例,腹腔感染9例;糖尿病酮症酸中毒1例。术后住院时间平均15．2（10～25）d。随访34例,平均11．2（1～31）月,3例术后1年内死亡,7例术后1～2年死亡,25例局部复发。最长生存29月。结论绝大部分胆囊癌发现时处于晚期;针对不同分期和部位选择合适的外科手术治疗手段可以有效延长患者寿命、改善症状、提高生存质量。     

胆囊切除术后意外性胆囊癌的治疗

目的探讨胆囊切除术后意外性胆囊癌的二次手术方式以及对预后的影响。方法对我院自1995年1月~2005年1月因诊断为胆囊良性疾病而行胆囊切除,因术后病理证实为胆囊癌而二次行胆囊癌根治术17例患者进行回顾性分析。结果本组17例均因胆囊良性疾病行开放性单纯胆囊切除手术,术后病理证实为胆囊癌,术后病理:胆囊腺癌13例,鳞癌3例,鳞腺癌1例。初次手术Nevin病理分期:Ⅰ期2例,Ⅱ期4例,Ⅲ期8例,Ⅳ期3例。二次手术发现淋巴结转移11例,3例有肝转移和远处转移,胆囊床转移2例,胆管转移1例,二次手术Nevin病理分期:Ⅰ期2例,Ⅱ期3例,Ⅲ期1例,Ⅳ期8例,Ⅴ期3例,术后随访半年到5年,6例死亡,存活11例。结论术中对于胆囊标本的仔细检查可以减少意外性胆囊癌的发生率。二期根治性手术对于部分意外性胆囊癌是有益的。     

16例意外胆囊癌的诊治分析

目的探讨意外胆囊癌的诊断和治疗。方法回顾性分析2006年1月至2012年12月胆囊切除术中或术后病理发现的原发性胆囊癌16例临床病例资料。结果术前诊断2例为胆囊息肉,14例为胆囊炎胆囊结石;常规开腹胆囊切除术(OC)2例,腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)14例;术后病理Nevin分期,Ⅰ期2例,Ⅱ期7例,Ⅲ期4例,Ⅳ期3例。;2例术中怀疑,经术中快速病理证实,1例单纯胆囊切除,1例术中再次行部分肝切除+肝十二指肠韧带周围淋巴结清扫术;术后病理证实14例,3例单纯胆囊切除,未再次手术;5例再次行肝十二指肠韧带周围淋巴结清扫术;3例再次手术行部分肝切除+肝十二指肠韧带周围淋巴结清扫术,3例放弃再次手术;随访时间至2013年4月,已有12例死亡,6例仍存活,最长者已存活40个月,最短者在术后3个月内死亡,4例存活期超过36个月。结论术前应重视胆囊癌的高危因素和增强对胆囊癌的诊断意识,以减少意外胆囊癌的发生;Nevin分期Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期侵犯胆囊粘膜患者可行LC,Ⅱ期侵犯肌层及其以上分期患者需再行开腹胆囊癌根治术。     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术与意外胆囊癌

目的:探讨腹腔镜胆囊切除术后意外发现胆囊癌的处理方法。方法:对1997～2001年14例腹腔镜胆囊切除术中或术后意外发现的胆囊癌进行临床病理分析。结果:14例意外胆囊癌中男2例,女12例。平均年龄66.1岁。术前诊断1例为胆囊息肉,余13例为胆囊炎胆囊结石(92.8%)。有7例中转开腹手术,1例因发现转移仅在腹腔镜下行腹壁肿块活检术,6例完成腹腔镜胆囊切除术。术后病理TNM分期:0期1例,Ⅰ期4例,Ⅱ期3例,Ⅲ期3例,Ⅳb期3例。至随访截止时,已有9人死亡,5人仍存活,存活期超过36个月者有4人,最长者已存活68月。结论:腹腔镜胆囊切除术不适用于胆囊癌病人。提倡腹腔镜术中对可疑病灶进行冰冻切片病理检查。对胆囊癌侵犯深度超过肌层者应中转开腹或术后再次开腹行根治性手术。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.