Hospital infection surveillance in 5 Roman intensive care units

The A.A. carried out a survey on hospital acquired infection (HAI) in the intensive care units (ICU) of five roman hospitals. The study monitored the following site-specific infection rates: pneumonia (PNE), blood stream infections (BSI), urinary tract infections (UTI), surgical site infections (SSI). According to CDC definitions all patients developing infection 48 hours or more after ward admission were included. Furthermore risk factors (i.e. age, sex, SAPS II), invasive procedures (i.e. endotracheal intubation, vascular and urinary catheterisation), microbiological isolates and their antibiotic susceptibility were screened. The overall 503 patients characteristics (i.e., age, length of stay, case-mix...) showed the wards as general ICU's. Although the SAPS II score was similar, mortality (18.2%-42.9%) and general infection rates (15.4%-40.4%) among the five ICU's were considerably variable (p < 0.05), as HAI episodes distribution by type: PNE (37-88%), BSI (6-42%), UTI (6-24%), SSI (3-7%) (p < 0.05). Also device-associated infection rates such as Ventilator-associated PNE (11.6-24.6@1000), Vascular catheter-associated BSI (3.4-19.2@1000). Urinary catheter-associated UTI (2.6-14.0@1000) and invasive procedures management were different. Among the infected patients the most commonly isolated microorganisms were P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus spp., which presented a considerable antibiotic resistance. The study showed: 1) sampling (i.e. blood cultures, tracheal aspirate and urine samples) and laboratory methodology indispensable for a correct HAI diagnosis were not standardized in the five ICU's; 2) hospital infection control policy was not carried out in all ICU's. The study showed a lack of standardization which limits the comparability of the general roman ICU's.     

Nosocomial pulmonary infection by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria of patients hospitalized in intensive care units: risk factors and survival

The objectives of this study were to identify the risk factors of nosocomial pulmonary infection (NPI) in intensive care units (ICUs) associated with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (NPI-ARB) and to compare survival after NPI-ARB with NPI due to antimicrobial-sensitive bacteria (NPI-ASB). We analysed data from a surveillance network monitoring nosocomial infections in 27 mixed ICUs in the south-east of France. NPI surveillance data were recorded for 628 patients with documented NPI. The patients were stratified into 2 groups by type of pneumonia: NPI-ASB (445 patients) vs. NPI-ARB (183 patients). Variables associated with NPI-ARB were identified++ by multivariate logistic regression. Survival was calculated using the Kaplan-Meier method. A medical condition for ICU admission [odds ratio (OR) 1.98, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.35-2.91], transfer from another hospital ward [OR 1.66, 95% CI (1.14-2.42)], a colonized central venous catheter [OR 3.47, 95% CI (1.46-8.21)], a stay of [eight days [OR 1.02, 95% CI (1.01-1. 05)] and mechanical ventilation [OR 2.10, 95% CI (1.31-3.36)] were independent risk factors of NPI-ARB. Median survival was 35 days after NPI-ARB and 32 days after NPI-ASB (P=0.92). Survival after bacterial NPI was not associated with antimicrobial susceptibility.     

不同专业重症监护病房多重耐药菌医院感染特征

 目的 了解不同专业重症监护病房（ICU）连续5年多重耐药菌（MDRO）感染情况,为不同专业的ICU合理使用抗菌药物提供参考依据。方法 回顾性研究2016年1月-2020年12月某三级甲等医院9个不同专业的ICU住院患者检出的MDRO资料,分析不同专业ICU MDRO检出率、发现率、感染部位以及细菌耐药率。结果 2016-2020年不同专业ICU共监测住院患者30 030例,检出MDRO 2 744株,其中医院感染1 235株。5年间不同种类的MDRO检出率比较,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）;耐碳青霉烯类铜绿假单胞菌（CRPA）和耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌（CRKP）不同年度检出率比较,差异均有统计学意义（均P<0.05）,并有年度升高趋势。5年间MDRO感染发现率为3.86%,发现例次率为4.11%;不同专业间ICU不同年度和持续5年的MDRO感染发现例次率比较,差异均有统计学意义（均P<0.05）;所有ICU不同年度MDRO感染发现例次率比较,差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）。MDRO感染部位居前3位分别为下呼吸道（578例次）、血液（240例次）、泌尿道（170例次）。综合ICU、心外ICU、神外ICU、急诊ICU检出的CRAB对庆大霉素、环丙沙星的耐药率比较,差异均有统计学意义（均P<0.05）;CRPA对庆大霉素的耐药率比较,差异有统计学意义（均P<0.05）。不同年度CRAB对头孢哌酮/舒巴坦的耐药率比较,以及CRPA对哌拉西林、哌拉西林/他唑巴坦、头孢哌酮/舒巴坦的耐药率比较,差异均有统计学意义（均P<0.05）。结论 临床诊疗过程中,应根据不同专业ICU的MDRO感染特征指导感染防控措施,并合理使用抗菌药物。     

Nosocomial infection surveillance in a surgical intensive care unit in Spain, 1996-2000: a time-trend analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To establish the occurrence, distribution, and secular time trend of nosocomial infections (NIs) in a surgical intensive care unit (ICU). DESIGN AND SETTING: Follow-up study in a teaching hospital in Spain. METHODS: In May 1995 we established an nosocomial infection surveillance system in our surgical ICU. We collected information daily for all patients who were in the ICU for at least 48 hours (546 patients from 1996 through 2000). We used the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definitions and criteria for infections. Monthly, we determined the site-specific incidence densities of NIs, the rates of medical device use, and the Poisson probability distribution, which determined whether the case count equalled the number of expected cases (the mean number of cases during the previous year, with extreme values excluded). We compared yearly and monthly infection rates by Poisson regression, using site-specific NIs as a dependent variable and year and month as dummy variables. We tested annual trends with an alternative Poisson regression model fitting a single linear trend. RESULTS: The average rate of catheter-associated urinary tract infections was 8.4 per 1000 catheter-days; that of ventilator-associated pneumonia, 21 per 1000 ventilator-days; and that of central line-associated bloodstream infections, 30 per 1000 central line-days. The rate of urinary tract infections did not change over the study period, but there was a trend toward decreases in the rates of central line-associated bloodstream infections and ventilator-associated pneumonia. CONCLUSION: An NI surveillance and control program contributed to a progressive decrease in NI rates.     

2010年度卫生部全国细菌耐药监测网报告:ICU来源细菌耐药性监测

目的了解我国2010年来源于重症监护病房(ICU)患者病原菌的分布及耐药性。方法使用WHONET5.6软件进行分析,对卫生部全国细菌耐药监测网所属129所三级甲等医院2010年度ICU来源的菌株进行分析。结果 2010年度共收集ICU分离菌株27 034株,其中革兰阳性菌7078株占26.2%,革兰阴性菌19 956株占73.8%;革兰阳性菌中前3位分别为葡萄球菌属、肠球菌属、链球菌属,革兰阴性菌中占前5位的为鲍氏不动杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、大肠埃希菌和嗜麦芽寡养单胞菌;采集标本占前3位的是痰液、血液和尿液,分别占63.2%、11.6%、5.0%;耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌检出率约80.0%,未发现耐万古霉素和利奈唑胺葡萄球菌;粪肠球菌和屎肠球菌中分别有1.4%和8.7%对万古霉素耐药,1.0%和5.9%对替考拉宁耐药;大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌产ESBLs检出率分别为73.9%和54.5%;肠杆菌科细菌中存在一部分耐碳青霉烯类菌株,大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌对亚胺培南的耐药率为6.4%和14.5%;铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南和美罗培南的耐药率分别为40.4%和34.9%,鲍氏不动杆菌对两者的耐药率分别为72.9%和73.5%,但二者对多黏菌素B仍保持较高敏感性。结论我国ICU来源细菌仍然以非发酵菌、葡萄球菌属、肺炎克雷伯菌、大肠埃希菌为主,细菌的耐药性比较严重,必须加以注意,需要控制抗菌药物的使用并继续密切监测ICU病原菌耐药变化趋势。     

外科监护病房患者医院感染的获得及对策

了解外科监护病房普外科危重患者医院感染获得的流行病学及细菌药敏测试情况。通过对１９９４年１２月～１９９６年４月期间，连续收集普外科手术后转入外科监护１０天以上的１４例危重患者，医院感染的发病情况及细菌分离株药敏情况进行研究。资料显示ＳＩＣＵ患者医院感染的特点为多部位感染占８５．８％；发生感染的部位从高到低依次为肺部、腹腔、切口、血液、消化道、泌尿道；病原菌中Ｇ＋球菌占３５．７％，Ｇ－杆菌占５８．３％，真菌占６％；Ｇ＋球菌对万古霉素和利福平较敏感，敏感率分别为９０．１％和６９％；Ｇ－杆菌对阿米卡星和妥布霉素较敏感，敏感率分别为４４．８％和４３．１％。ＳＩＣＵ医院感染获得与患者营养不良免疫力低下、手术创伤、高频率使用侵袭性诊疗操作及广谱抗生素使用不合理有关。主要防治对策除严格无菌操作外，加强营养支持治疗及合理使用抗生素。     

Incidence and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in Japanese intensive care units: the Japanese nosocomial infection surveillance system.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among intensive care unit (ICU) patients in Japan and to assess the impact of VAP on patient outcomes, including mortality, length of stay, and duration of mechanical ventilation. DESIGN: Multicenter cohort study. SETTING: Twenty-eight ICUs in multidisciplinary Japanese hospitals with more than 200 beds. PATIENTS: A total of 21,909 patients 16 years or older who were admitted to an ICU between June 2002 and June 2004, stayed in the ICU for 24 to 1,000 hours, and were not transferred to another ICU. RESULTS: The overall infection rates for nosocomial pneumonia and VAP were 6.5 cases per 1,000 patient-days and 12.6 cases per 1,000 ventilator-days, respectively. The standardized mortality rates for the patients with VAP was 1.3 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.6): 1.1 (95% CI, 0.9-1.4) for the cases due to drug-susceptible pathogens and 1.5 (95% CI, 1.1-1.9) for the cases due to drug-resistant pathogens. After adjusting for Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score, the mean length of stay for the patients with VAP caused by drug-susceptible pathogens (15.2 days [95% CI, 14.6-15.8]) and by drug-resistant pathogens (17.8 days [95% CI, 17.0-18.6]) was significantly longer than that in the patients without nosocomial infection (6.8 days [95% CI, 6.7-6.9]). The mean duration of mechanical ventilation in the patients with VAP caused by drug-susceptible pathogens (12.0 days [95% CI, 11.5-12.5]) and drug-resistant pathogens (14.1 days [95% CI, 13.5-14.8]) was significantly longer than that in the patients without nosocomial infection (4.7 days [95% CI, 4.6-4.8]). CONCLUSION: The incidence of VAP is substantial among ICU patients in Japan. The potential impact of VAP on patient outcomes emphasizes the importance of preventive measures against VAP, especially for VAP caused by drug-resistant pathogens.     

Nosocomial infections in combined medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of nosocomial infections in combined medical-surgical (MS) intensive care units (ICUs) participating in the National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) System. DESIGN: Analysis of surveillance data on 498,998 patients with 1,554,070 patient-days, collected between 1992 and 1998 from 205 MS ICUs following the NNIS Intensive Care Unit protocol, representing 152 participating NNIS hospitals in the United States. RESULTS: Infections at three major sites represented 68% of all reported infections (nosocomial pneumonia, 31%; urinary tract infections (UTIs), 23%; and primary bloodstream infections (BSIs), 14%: 83% of episodes of nosocomial pneumonia were associated with mechanical ventilation, 97% of UTIs occurred in catheterized patients, and 87% of primary BSIs in patients with a central line. In patients with primary BSIs, coagulase-negative staphylococci (39%) were the most common pathogens reported; Staphylococcus aureus (12%) was as frequently reported as enterococci (11%). Coagulase-negative staphylococcal BSIs were increasingly reported over the 6 years, but no increase was seen in candidemia or enterococcal bacteremia. In patients with pneumonia, S. aureus (17%) was the most frequently reported isolate. Of reported isolates, 59% were gram-negative bacilli. In patients with UTIs, Escherichia coli (19%) was the most frequently reported isolate. Of reported isolates, 31% were fungi. In patients with surgical-site infections, Enterococcus (17%) was the single most frequently reported pathogen. Device-associated nosocomial infection rates for BSIs, pneumonia, and UTIs did not correlate with length of ICU stay, hospital bed size, number of beds in the ICU, or season. Combined MS ICUs in major teaching hospitals had higher device-associated infection rates compared to all other hospitals with combined medical-surgical units. CONCLUSIONS: Nosocomial infections in MS ICUs at the most frequent infection sites (bloodstream, urinary, and respiratory tract) almost always were associated with use of an invasive device. Device-associated infection rates were the best available comparative rates between combined MS ICUs, but the distribution of device-associated rates should be stratified by a hospital's major teaching affiliation status.     

Serious infection in a neonatal intensive care unit: a two-year survey.

Over a two-year period 160 episodes of serious infection occurred in 139 infants admitted to a regional neonatal intensive-care unit. Eighty-seven (26%) of very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates and 52 (8%) of infants of birth weight greater than 1500 g were infected. The majority (84%) had bacteraemia alone. Though the clinical features of infection were not distinctive, in 94% of episodes the peripheral white blood cell or band counts were abnormal. Thirty-three (21%) of the infections occurred in infants under 48 h old and 15 of these followed prolonged rupture of membranes (greater than 48 h). All of the infections due to group B streptococci (5), Streptococcus viridans (2) and Haemophilus influenzae (3) occurred in this group. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CONS) accounted for 49% of the infections and there was a marked increase in incidence of such infections during the survey. Infections with CONS were not necessarily associated with parenteral nutrition, the presence of intra-arterial catheters or mechanical ventilation but the rise in incidence was coincident with change in skin disinfectant usage and the general use of a third-generation cephalosporin to which the CONS were resistant. Although VLBW infants with meningitis were more likely to die than those of higher birthweight, the risk for those with bacteriaemia was the same in both groups. Infants with CONS sepsis were less likely to die than those with infections due to Gram-negative bacteria and the time from onset of infection to death was significantly longer for the former.     

Hospital-acquired infection surveillance in a neurosurgical intensive care unit

A prospective study on hospital-acquired infection (HAI) was undertaken in the eight-bed neurosurgical intensive care unit (NSICU) of a teaching hospital in Rome, Italy. All patients admitted for >48 h between January 2002 and December 2004 were included. The infection control team collected the following data from all patients: demographic characteristics, patient origin, diagnosis, severity score, underlying diseases, invasive procedures, HAI, isolated micro-organisms and antibiotic susceptibilities. Overall, 323 patients were included in the study. Mean age was 55.5 years (range 17-91), and mean American Society of Anesthesiologists' score was 2.88. Seventy (21.7%) patients developed 132 NSICU HAIs: 43 pneumonias, 40 bloodstream infections (BSIs), 30 urinary tract infections (UTIs), 10 cases of meningitis associated with an external ventricular drain (EVD) and nine surgical site infections (SSIs). The SSI rate was high (5.6%), but a reduction was achieved during the three-year period. There were 7.2 bloodstream infection episodes per 1000 days of device exposure; 11.00 pneumonias per 1000 days of mechanical ventilation and 4.5 UTIs per 1,000 days of urinary catheterisation. Among patients with an EVD, the SSI relative risk was 11.3 [95% confidence intervals (CI) 4.2-30.6; P<0.01]. Sixty-one (18.9%) patients died. Logistic regression analysis showed that mortality was significantly associated with infection [odds ratio (OR)=2.28; 95%CI 1.11-4.71; P=0.02] and age (OR=1.04; 95%CI 1.01-1.06; P=0.002). Candida spp. were the leading cause of UTIs (40.0%) and the third most common cause of BSIs (12.7%). Antibiotic-resistant pathogens included meticillin-resistant staphylococci (77.5%), carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (36.4%), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (75.0%). Although the overall incidence of infection (21.7%) was within the range of published data, the associated mortality, the increasing severity of illness of patients, and the emergence of multi-drug-resistant organisms shows the need to improve infection control measures.     

Incidence and outcome of sepsis in Japanese intensive care units: The Japanese nosocomial infection surveillance system

Objectives To determine the incidence of sepsis in Japanese intensive care units (ICUs) and to evaluate the impact of sepsis on mortality and length of stay (LOS). Methods Using the JANIS database for the period between June 2002 and June 2004, 21,895 eligible patients aged ≥16 years, hospitalized in 28 participating ICUs for ≥24 hours, were monitored until ICU discharge. Adjusted hazard ratio (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for the incidence of sepsis was calculated using Cox’s proportional hazard model. Standardized mortality ratio (SMR) was calculated on the basis of the crude mortality in patients without nosocomial infection (NI) for respective APACHE II categories. Mean LOS for survivors was assessed by two-way analysis of variance with adjustment for APACHE II. Results Sepsis was diagnosed in 450 patients (2.1%), with 228 meeting the definition on ICU admission and 222 during the ICU stay. The overall incidence of sepsis was 1.02/100 admissions or 2.00/1000 patient-days. A significantly higher HR for the incidence of sepsis was found in men (1.54, 95% CI: 1.14–2.07), APACHE II ≥21 (2.92, 95% CI: 1.92–4.44), ventilator use (3.30, 95% CI: 1.98–5.49), and central venous catheter use (3.45, 95% CI: 1.90–6.28). SMR was determined to be 1.18 (95% CI: 0.82–1.21) in NI patients without sepsis and 2.43 (95% CI: 1.88–3.09) in NI patients with sepsis. Mean LOS for survivors was calculated to be 11.8 days (95% CI: 11.3–12.4) in NI patients without sepsis and 15.0 days (95% CI: 13.3–17.0) in NI patients with sepsis compared with 3.8 days (95% CI: 3.8–3.9) in patients without NI. Conclusions Sepsis is not very common in Japanese ICUs, but its development leads to further increases in mortality and LOS in patients with NI.     

Nosocomial infections in a Dutch neonatal intensive care unit: surveillance study with definitions for infection specifically adapted for neonates

The incidence of nosocomial infection in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) is high compared with other wards. However, no definitions for hospital-acquired infection are available for NICUs. The aim of this study was to measure the incidence of such infections and to identify risk factors in the NICU of the VU University Medical Center, which serves as a level III regional NICU. For this purpose, a prospective surveillance was performed in 1998-2000. We designed definitions by adjusting the current definitions of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for children <1 year of age. Birth weight was stratified into four categories and other baseline risk factors were dichotomized. Analysis of risk factors was performed by Cox regression with time-dependent variables. The relationship between the Clinical Risk Index for Babies (CRIB) and nosocomial infection was investigated. Furthermore, for a random sample of cases, we determined whether bloodstream infection and pneumonia would also have been identified with the CDC definitions. Seven hundred and forty-two neonates were included in the study. One hundred and ninety-one neonates developed 264 infections. Bloodstream infection (N=138, 14.9/1000 patient-days) and pneumonia (N=69, 7.5/1000 patient-days) were the most common infections. Of bloodstream infections, 59% were caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci; in 21% of neonates, blood cultures remained negative. In 25% of pneumonias, Enterobacteriaceae were the causative micro-organisms; 26% of cultures remained negative. Compared with the Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (NNIS) of the CDC, our device utilization ratios and device-associated nosocomial infection rates were high. The main risk factors for bloodstream infection were birth weight [hazard ratio (HR) 1.79, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.45-2.17] and parenteral feeding with hospital-pharmacy-produced, all-in-one mixture 'Minimix' (HR 3.69, 95%CI 2.03-6.69); administration of intravenous antibiotics (HR 0.39, 95%CI 0.26-0.56) was a protective risk factor. The main risk factors for pneumonia were low birth weight (HR 1.37, 95%CI 1.01-1.85) and mechanical ventilation (HR 9.69, 95%CI 4.60-20.4); intravenous antibiotics were protective (HR 0.37, 95%CI 0.21-0.64). In a subcohort of 232 very-low-birthweight neonates, the CRIB was not predictive for infection. With the CDC criteria, only 75% (21/28) of bloodstream infections and 87.5% of pneumonias (21/24) would have been identified. In conclusion, our local nosocomial infection rates are high compared with those of NICUs participating in the NNIS. This can be partially explained by: (1) the use of our definitions for nosocomial infection, which are more suitable for this patient category; and (2) the high device utilization ratios.     

重症监护病房住院患者医院感染状况调查

目的 分析综合性重症监护病房(ICU)住院患者医院感染状况及特点,为降低医院感染率提供依据.方法 选取山东省某三级甲等医院2004年1月-2009年12月入住ICU患者1 719例,进行目标性监测,由感染科和ICU护士分别记录患者在ICU发生的感染和转出ICU48 h内发生的感染情况.结果 1 719例患者中,发生医院感染530例,医院感染率为30.95%;住院天数共计25 980 d,其中尿管留置率68.93%;动静脉导管留置率为35.65%;呼吸机留置率为44.53%;感染部位以下呼吸道为主,占67.25%;感染病原菌以革兰阴性杆菌中铜绿假单胞菌感染为主,占13.61%,其次是金黄色葡萄球菌,占9.52%.结论 ICU患者是医院感染的易感人群,应加强对ICU的目标性监测,根据监测结果采取针对性干预措施,降低感染发生率,提高医疗质量.     

Risk-adjusted surveillance of hospital-acquired infections in neonatal intensive care units: a systematic review

Comparisons of bacteraemia incidence between neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) can identify centres with effective infection control, whose practices can be shared with other units. For fair comparisons, infection incidence must be risk-adjusted to control for differences between centres in the vulnerability of babies and the intensity of invasive procedures which can introduce infection. We reviewed risk adjustment methods for between-NICU comparisons of bacteraemia incidence, both in the published literature and in regional and national NICU infection monitoring systems. PubMed and Embase were searched for studies reporting risk-adjusted bacteraemia incidence in more than one NICU. An internet search found NICU infection monitoring systems in Western industrialised countries. In all nine studies that met the inclusion criteria, risk adjustment reduced but did not eliminate variation in bacteraemia incidence between NICUs. In both the studies and the regional monitoring systems, adjustment for baby susceptibility generally involved stratification by factors measured at birth. Adjustment for Length of stay and invasive procedures involved reporting incidence by days with a device, such as central venous catheter days. Methods for NICU infection monitoring lack consistency. Adjustment for factors measured at birth fails to capture changes in susceptibility throughout admission and adjustment for device days does not adequately reflect risk to babies not treated with the device. Further research should address variation in risk for all babies throughout their NICU stay.