Physical attractiveness of girls with gender identity disorder

University students, masked to group status, judged the physical attractiveness of girls with gender identity disorder and clinical and normal control girls, whose photographs were taken at the time of assessment ( age, 6.6 years). Each student made ratings for all girls for five traits: attractive, beautiful, cute, pretty, and ugly. A multivariate analysis of variance showed a significant group effect. Multiple comparisons of the significant univariate effects showed that the girls with gender identity disorder had significantly less attractive ratings than the normal control girls for the traits attractive, beautiful, and pretty who, in turn, had less attractive ratings than the clinical control girls. Girls with gender identity disorder and the normal controls also had less attractive ratings than the clinical controls for the trait cute. Correlational analyses showed that age was substantially negatively related to the attractiveness ratings in the group of girls with gender identity disorder, but was considerably less so in the two control groups. The extent to which the group differences in attractiveness were due to objective, structural differences in facial attractiveness vs. socially created, or subjective, processes is discussed. A version of this article was presented at the meeting of the International Academy of Sex Research, Edinburgh, Scotland, June 1994.     

Gender Identity Disorder in an Adult Male with Asperger’s Syndrome

This report describes an individual with gender identity disorder and Aspergers Syndrome. Although a growing body of information exists related to these conditions, a recent literature search only described a few cases of children where both disorders were present. A MEDLINE search failed to produce any cases of adult males with both Aspergers syndrome and gender identity disorder. The interaction of both conditions and possible relationship with obsessive traits or obsessive compulsive disorder may provide a better understanding of a possible linkage between the two disorders and support more rationale treatment approaches.     

Intergenerational perceptions of body image in hispanics: role of BMI, gender, and acculturation

OBJECTIVE: To assess role of BMI, gender, and acculturation on maternal and children's perception of body size, body ideal, and attractiveness. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Eighty mothers and their 6- to- 12-year-old children (41 boys, 39 girls) participated. Maternal and children's perceptions of body size (actual and ideal) and attractiveness were assessed through a pictorial instrument. Mother and child height and weight, demographic, and acculturation characteristics were also assessed. RESULTS: Seventy-nine percent of the mothers were overweight, and 32% of the boys and 34% of the girls were overweight or at-risk for overweight. BMI influenced the children's selection of perceived ideal size. Overweight or at-risk for overweight children were more likely to select thinner figures as the ideal size than non-overweight children. Gender and acculturation differences concerning children's perceptions of body size and attractiveness were also found. Girls perceived the obese figure as being less attractive than did the boys. More acculturated children were likely to select thinner figures as more attractive than their less acculturated counterparts. Maternal acculturation was associated positively with the girls' choice of thinner figures as an ideal body size, but not with the boys. Mothers viewed their daughters' actual body size and BMI as ideal, although 34% of the girls were at-risk for overweight. Mothers perceived average body size figures as more attractive for their sons. DISCUSSION: Findings from this study provide empirical data about the role of BMI, gender, acculturation, and familial influences on children's perceptions of actual and ideal body sizes and attractiveness.     

Gender Differences in the Association Between Perceived Discrimination and Adolescent Smoking

Objectives. We examined associations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, gender, and cigarette smoking among adolescents.Methods. We examined data on Black and Latino adolescents aged 12 to 19 years who participated in the Moving to Opportunity study (N = 2561). Perceived discrimination was assessed using survey items asking about unfair treatment because of race/ethnicity in the prior 6 months. We used logistic regression to investigate associations between discrimination and smoking, stratified by gender and controlling for covariates.Results. One fourth of adolescents reported that discrimination had occurred in at least 1 location. Discrimination was associated with increased odds of smoking among boys (odds ratio [OR] = 1.9; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.2, 3.0) and decreased odds among girls (OR = 0.6; 95% CI = 0.3, 1.1). Discrimination at school or work contributed to associations for girls (OR = 0.3; 95% CI = 0.1, 0.9), and discrimination at shops (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.1, 3.8) and by police (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2, 3.4) contributed to associations for boys.Conclusions. Associations between discrimination and smoking differ by gender. Girls’ decreased smoking in higher-discrimination settings may be a result of protective factors associated with where they spend time. Boys’ increased smoking in higher-discrimination settings may reflect increased stress from gender-specific targeting by police and businesses.Several studies have found perceived racial/ethnic discrimination to be associated with adolescent and young adult smoking.^1–7 Smoking as a response to the stress of discrimination is a possible reason for this association, but mediating factors are not well understood.¹A mediating factor that merits attention is the intersection of gender with smoking and the context of discrimination. Gender is relevant, as boys are more likely to smoke cigarettes than girls, and gender differences in smoking prevalence are more pronounced among Blacks.⁸ In addition, adolescents may make different choices about where to spend time based on gender,⁹ and these “gendered” contexts may relate to smoking behavior. For example, the Moving to Opportunity study showed that gender plays a significant role in both smoking behavior and where adolescents spend time. Girls in the Moving to Opportunity intervention groups, whose families used a study voucher to relocate to a neighborhood of their own choice or to a low-poverty neighborhood, were less likely to smoke than girls in the control group (whose families were not offered the means to move from public housing). However, boys in the intervention groups were more likely to smoke than boys in the control group.¹⁰A follow-up study found that girls and boys spent time in different locales.¹¹ Girls in intervention groups were more likely to spend time closer to home. Boys in intervention groups were more likely to return to their public housing community and congregate at street corners, parks, vacant lots, and other places without adult supervision. These gender differences in context may influence adolescents’ situational exposure to discrimination. In other words, the experience of discrimination may be caused by gender-specific use of place, which may then differentially relate to smoking behaviors.The primary purpose of this study was to examine the influence of gender on smoking''s association with discrimination and with context of discrimination among adolescents. We hypothesized that this association would be stronger among boys and that gender differences would be mediated by the context of discrimination. Analyses were adjusted for mediating factors that may contribute to smoking among individuals who perceive higher levels of discrimination, such as stress, depression, and anxiety.^3,4,6,12 Whether these factors differentially influence girls and boys in terms of the association between discrimination and smoking risk is unknown.     

Peer Reviewed: Screening High School Students for Eating Disorders: Results of a National Initiative

Introduction

Early identification and treatment of disordered eating and weight control behaviors may prevent progression and reduce the risk of chronic health consequences.

Methods

The National Eating Disorders Screening Program coordinated the first-ever nationwide eating disorders screening initiative for high schools in the United States in 2000. Students completed a self-report screening questionnaire that included the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) and items on vomiting or exercising to control weight, binge eating, and history of treatment for eating disorders. Multivariate regression analyses examined sex and racial/ethnic differences.

Results

Almost 15% of girls and 4% of boys scored at or above the threshold of 20 on the EAT-26, which indicated a possible eating disorder. Among girls, we observed few significant differences between ethnic groups in eating disorder symptoms, whereas among boys, more African American, American Indian, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Latino boys reported symptoms than did white boys. Overall, 25% of girls and 11% of boys reported disordered eating and weight control symptoms severe enough to warrant clinical evaluation. Of these symptomatic students, few reported that they had ever received treatment.

Conclusion

Population screening for eating disorders in high schools may identify at-risk students who would benefit from early intervention, which could prevent acute and long-term complications of disordered eating and weight control behaviors.     

Effects of Physical Appearance on Masculine Trait Ratings of Boys and Girls with Gender Identity Disorder

University students, masked to group status, rated the physical appearance of boys and girls with gender identity disorder (GID) and same-sexcontrols using traits with stereotypical masculine connotations (for boys: all-boy, handsome, masculine, and rugged; for girls: handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish). Three traits (all-boy, masculine, and rugged) were judged to be significantly less characteristic of the boys with GID as compared to the same-sex controls; for the fourth trait (handsome), the inverse result was obtained. All four traits (handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish) were judged to be significantly more characteristic of the girls with GID as compared to the same-sex normal and/or clinical controls. These results were the inverse of the results obtained in two previous experiments, in which traits with stereotypical feminine connotations were used (Fridell et al., 1996; Zucker et al., 1993). Taken together, the results suggest that boys and girls with GID have a sex-typed physical appearance that distinguishes them from same-sex controls. Possible determinants of these differences are discussed.     

Effects of Attractiveness and Social Status on Dating Desire in Heterosexual Adolescents: An Experimental Study

The present study examined to what extent adolescent dating desire is based on attractiveness and social status of a potential short-term partner. Further, we tested whether self-perceived mate value moderated the relationship between dating desire and attractiveness of a potential partner. Data were used from a sample of 1,913 adolescents aged 13–18. Participants rated the importance of various characteristics of a potential partner and also participated in an experimental vignette study in which dating desire was measured with either low or high attractive potential partners having either a high or low social status. The results showed that boys rated attractiveness as more important than girls, while social status was rated as relatively unimportant by both sexes. In addition, in the experimental vignette study, it was found that attractiveness was the primary factor for boys’ dating desire. Only when a potential partner was attractive, social status became important for boys’ dating desire. For girls, on the other hand, it appeared that both attractiveness and social status of a potential partner were important for their dating desire. Finally, boys and girls who perceived themselves as having a high mate value showed more dating desire toward an attractive potential partner compared to adolescents who perceived themselves as having a low mate value. The present results extend previous research by showing that attractiveness of a potential partner is important to both adolescent boys and girls, but social status does not strongly affect dating desire during this particular age period.     

The use of patient mix‐adjusted control charts to compare in‐hospital costs of care

We introduce a technique for patient mixadjusting charts and compared differences between unadjusted and patient mixadjusted results. Our data came from coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery patients at Baptist Medical Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. We first developed an unadjusted control chart to compare monthly changes in CABG surgery costs and then used a published model to patient mixadjust our control chart information. Before adjustment, the average log costs for three of ten months were outside the 90% control limit lines, and there was a trend toward increasing costs. After adjustment, two months had average costs outside the 90% lower control limit lines, and the trend toward increasing costs had been explained by differences in patient acuity.     

Anthropometrical Measurements and Androgen Levels in Males, Females, and Hormonally Untreated Female-To-Male Transsexuals

To elucidate the relationship between body build, androgens, and transsexual gender identity, anthropometric measurements were assessed in 15 hormonally untreated female-to-male-transsexuals (FMT). Nineteen healthy women (CF) ( = 22 years; 2 months), and 21 healthy men (CM) ( = 23;7) were enrolled as controls. Baseline levels of testosterone (T; ng/dl), androstenedione (A4; ng/dl), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS; ng/ml), and sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG; g/ml) were assessed in 12 FMT, 15 CF, and in all CM. No control was under hormonal medication (including contraceptives). Absolute measurements in FMT were in accordance with their biological sex: they showed only small differences from the CF. However, FMT differed from CF in 7 of 14 sex-dimorphic indices of masculinity/femininity in body build. Of these 14 indices, 9 did not show a difference between FMT and CM. Hence, FMT presented a more masculine body build, particularly in fat distribution and bone proportions. Levels of T and A4 were significantly higher in FMT than in CF (T: 54.0 ± 13.8 vs. 41.1 ± 12.8; A4: 244.8 ± 73.0 vs. 190.5 ± 49.3), while DHEAS was higher in CM (3335 ± 951) than in CF (2333 ± 793) and in FMT (2679 ± 1089). Altogether, 83.3% of FMT and 33.3% of CF were above normal values for at least one measured androgen. SHBG in FMT (1.21 ± 0.70) and CF (1.87 ± 0.91) was higher than in CM (0.49 ± 0.18) and tended to be higher in CF than in FMT. Unbound T (T/SHBG ratio) was higher in FMT (72.0 ± 67.6) than in CF (26.4 ± 15.1) and correlated positively with manly body shape. Findings are discussed in relation to etiology of transsexualism.     

Gender Expression,Violence, and Bullying Victimization: Findings From Probability Samples of High School Students in 4 US School Districts

BACKGROUND

Young people may experience school‐based violence and bullying victimization related to their gender expression, independent of sexual orientation identity. However, the associations between gender expression and bullying and violence have not been examined in racially and ethnically diverse population‐based samples of high school students.

METHODS

This study includes 5469 students (13–18 years) from the 2013 Youth Risk Behavior Surveys conducted in 4 urban school districts. Respondents were 51% Hispanic/Latino, 21% black/African American, 14% white. Generalized additive models were used to examine the functional form of relationships between self‐reported gender expression (range: 1 = Most gender conforming, 7 = Most gender nonconforming) and 5 indicators of violence and bullying victimization. We estimated predicted probabilities across gender expression by sex, adjusting for sexual orientation identity and potential confounders.

RESULTS

Statistically significant quadratic associations indicated that girls and boys at the most gender conforming and nonconforming ends of the scale had elevated probabilities of fighting and fighting‐related injury, compared to those in the middle of the scale (p < .05). There was a significant linear relationship between gender expression and bullying victimization; every unit increase in gender nonconformity was associated with 15% greater odds of experiencing bullying (p < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

School‐based victimization is associated with conformity and nonconformity to gender norms. School violence prevention programs should include gender diversity education.

     

Socio-economic differences in health among Slovak adolescents

Summary Objectives: To explore socio-economic health differences among Slovak adolescents.Methods: Socio-economic differences in health (psychological health: GHQ-12, vitality and mental health scale of RAND, experienced health complaints, chronic illness, use of medicines, self-reported health, self-perceived vulnerability to illness) were explored among Slovak adolescents (n=2 616, 1370 boys, 1246 girls; mean age 15 years).Results: Adolescents from lower socio-economic groups (parents occupation, parents education, type of school) experienced more health complaints; less frequently experienced their health as excellent or very good, more frequently reported to fall ill easier and less frequently use non-prescribed drugs in comparison with adolescents from higher socio-economic groups. Moreover, adolescents from lower occupational group of parents and lower type of school score significantly lower in mental health and in vitality and used prescribed drugs more frequently. We did not confirm any socio-economic differences in psychological health or prevalence of chronic illness. Our findings confirmed poorer health of girls in comparison to boys. There are no gender differences with regard to socio-economic differences in health.Conclusion: There are significant socio-economic health differences among Slovak adolescents.     

Gender Constancy Judgments in Children with Gender Identity Disorder: Evidence for a Developmental Lag

Gender constancy judgments in children referredfor problems in their gender identity development (N =206) and controls (N = 95) were compared. On Slaby andFrey's (1975) gender constancy interview, the gender-referred children performed more poorlythan the controls at three stage levels: genderidentity, gender stability, and gender consistency. Onthe Boy-Girl Identity Task, a second measure of gender constancy (Emmerich et al., 1977), thegender-referred children also performed more poorly.Gender-referred children who had not attained genderconsistency engaged in significantly less same-sex-typed play on a free-play task than thegender-referred children who had, but there were nogender consistency effects for the controls. Two othermeasures of sex-typed behavior were unrelated to genderconsistency. In the gender-referred group alone, childrenwho failed the gender identity or genderstability stages were more likely to draw anopposite-sex person first on the Draw-a-Person test andto evince more affective gender confusion on the GenderIdentity Interview (Zucker et al., 1993) than childrenwho had passed. It is concluded thatchildren referred for problems in their gender identitydevelopment have a developmental lag in gender constancyacquisition. Possible reasons for the lag arediscussed.     

Measuring feminine gender identity in homosexual males

The appropriateness of measuring femininity in homosexual males by means of the usual masculinity-femininity tests is questioned. It is felt that what was called by earlier observers femininity or effeminacy in males was mainly or solely feminine gender identity (F.G.I.), whereas the masculinity-femininity tests currently used in measuring femininity with males embrace a wider area of differences between males and females than that of gender identity proper. An attempt was made to arrive at a more appropriate scale by first assembling a nucleus of F.G.I. items of high clinical face validity which later could be extended by adding items strongly correlated with this nucleus. The degree of F.G.I. was assessed by means of this scale in transsexual and nontranssexual androphiles (homosexual males who erotically prefer mature partners) and heterosexual control subjects. Results showed that transsexual and heterosexual males were discriminated by F.G.I. scores without any overlap, while nontranssexual androphiles' scores overlapped heavily with those of the controls and only slightly with those of the transsexual males.This study was supported by a grant from the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry Research Fund.     

Explaining educational inequalities in adolescent life satisfaction: do health behaviour and gender matter?

Objectives

There is little evidence on the explanation of health inequalities based on a gender sensitive perspective. The aim was to investigate to what extent health behaviours mediate the association between educational inequalities and life satisfaction of boys and girls.

Methods

Data were derived from the German part of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study 2010 (n = 5,005). Logistic regression models were conducted to investigate educational inequalities in life satisfaction among 11- to 15-year-old students and the relative impact of health behaviour in explaining these inequalities.

Results

Educational inequalities in life satisfaction were more pronounced in boys than in girls from lower educational tracks (OR 2.82, 95 % CI 1.97–4.05 and OR 2.30, 95 % CI 1.68–3.14). For adolescents belonging to the lowest educational track, behavioural factors contributed to 18 % (boys) and 39 % (girls) in the explanation of educational inequalities in life satisfaction.

Conclusions

The relationship between educational track and life satisfaction is substantially mediated by health-related behaviours. To tackle inequalities in adolescent health, behavioural factors should be targeted at adolescents from lower educational tracks, with special focus on gender differences.     

Changing identity through sport: The Paralympic sport club experience among adolescents with mobility impairments

Background

Adolescents with mobility impairments have fewer opportunities to challenge identity as an athlete through sport participation.

注意缺陷多动障碍与对立违抗障碍男童的情绪调节过程缺陷

目的 探索注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)和对立违抗障碍(ODD)男童的情绪调节过程特征,比较两者情绪调节过程的异同。方法 采用病例对照的研究方法,选取ADHD和ODD男童为研究组,对其情绪调节能力、行为表现、智能情况进行评估,并且与健康发育男童做比较。结果 以总智商为协变量,研究组在负性情绪认知重评,负性情绪表情抑制,负性情绪表情宣泄,正性情绪认知重评上的得分与对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(F=4.108、7.747、12.157、4.475,P<0.05或<0.01);单纯ODD组、ODD/ADHD组和单纯ADHD组的情绪调节能力未见显著差异。结论 ADHD和ODD男童存在对负性情绪的调节缺陷。     

A Behavior-Based Intervention That Prevents Sexual Assault: the Results of a Matched-Pairs,Cluster-Randomized Study in Nairobi,Kenya

Design

The study’s design was a cluster-randomized, matched-pairs, parallel trial of a behavior-based sexual assault prevention intervention in the informal settlements.

Methods

The participants were primary school girls aged 10–16. Classroom-based interventions for girls and boys were delivered by instructors from the same settlements, at the same time, over six 2-h sessions. The girls’ program had components of empowerment, gender relations, and self-defense. The boys’ program promotes healthy gender norms. The control arm of the study received a health and hygiene curriculum. The primary outcome was the rate of sexual assault in the prior 12 months at the cluster level (school level). Secondary outcomes included the generalized self-efficacy scale, the distribution of number of times victims were sexually assaulted in the prior period, skills used, disclosure rates, and distribution of perpetrators. Difference-in-differences estimates are reported with bootstrapped confidence intervals.

Results

Fourteen schools with 3147 girls from the intervention group and 14 schools with 2539 girls from the control group were included in the analysis. We estimate a 3.7 % decrease, p?=?0.03 and 95 % CI?=?(0.4, 8.0), in risk of sexual assault in the intervention group due to the intervention (initially 7.3 % at baseline). We estimate an increase in mean generalized self-efficacy score of 0.19 (baseline average 3.1, on a 1–4 scale), p?=?0.0004 and 95 % CI?=?(0.08, 0.39).

Interpretation

This innovative intervention that combined parallel training for young adolescent girls and boys in school settings showed significant reduction in the rate of sexual assault among girls in this population.

     

Gazing Behavior During Mixed-Sex Interactions: Sex and Attractiveness Effects

We investigated to what extent the length of people’s gazes during conversations with opposite-sex persons is affected by the physical attractiveness of the partner. Single participants (N = 115) conversed for 5 min with confederates who were rated either as low or high on physical attractiveness. From a mating strategy perspective, we hypothesized that men’s increased dating desire towards highly attractive confederates would lead to longer periods of gazing, whereas women’s gazing would be less influenced by their dating desire towards highly attractive confederates. Results confirmed our hypothesis, with significantly increased gazing for men in the high attractiveness condition but no significant differences in women in the two attractiveness conditions. Contrary to past research findings, there was no significant sex difference in the size of the effect of physical attractiveness on dating desire. The results were discussed in terms of preference for physically attractive partners and communication strategies during courtship.     

基于儿童心理教育评估第3版的孤独症谱系障碍儿童认知功能与行为特征的性别差异研究

目的 探讨孤独症谱系障碍(ASD)儿童认知功能与行为特征的性别差异。方法 选取2013年6月-2015年6月确诊ASD儿童621例,其中男503例,女118例。采用儿童心理教育评估第3版(PEP-3) 各副测验百分比、原积分、发展年龄评估ASD儿童认知功能与行为特征。根据PEP-3认知(CVP)副测验百分比分成四组:～25%组(A组)、～50%组(B组)、～75%组(C组)、～100%组(D组)。分析ASD儿童不同认知功能与性别差异相关的行为特征。结果 1)ASD女童组在PEP-3 各副测验包括认知(CVP)、语言表达(EL)、语言理解(RL)、小肌肉(FM)、大肌肉(GM)、模仿(VMI)、情感表达(AE)、社会互动(SR)、行为特征-非语言(CMB)、行为特征-语言(CVB)、问题行为(PB)、个人自理(PSC)、适应行为(AB)的原积分、发展年龄均低于男童组(P均<0.05)。2)A组女童CVP(P<0.001)、GM原积分(P=0.010)低于男童,ASD男女童在A组其余副测验以及B、C、D组副测验的原积分差异均未发现有统计学意义(P均>0.05)。结论 1)ASD女童认知功能、沟通社会互动、大小运动能力的损伤均较男童严重,个人自理能力、适应行为落后于男童。2)ASD女童认知功能低下是影响ASD行为特征男女性别差异的重要因素。