云南某市矿工STD/AIDS危险因素调查

目的了解云南省某市矿工性病/艾滋病(STD/AIDS)相关知识、性行为特征和感染率。方法在矿区暗娼相对集中的两个镇,采用方便样本抽样法共抽取427名矿工,进行面对面访谈式问卷调查,采集静脉血和首段尿,检测HIV、淋球菌、衣原体。结果有性经历的矿工中发现HIV、淋球菌、衣原体感染率分别为0.3%(1/352)、0.5%(1/182)、9.3%(17/182),衣原体阳性与文化程度(P=0.027)、婚姻状况(P=0.007)有统计学意义。矿工中认为经性、血液、共用注射器、母婴传播可以传播HIV的分别占50.4%、43.5%、45.7%和39.3%。有27.9%的矿工没有听说过安全套,52.5%不知道安全套作用。报告嫖娼比例为14.2%,嫖娼中从未使用安全套的占40.0%。结论矿工中存在高危性行为,STD/AIDS防治知识缺乏,安全套使用率低,极易造成STD/HIV的传播,对他们进行干预是至关重要的。     

Difference in Risk Behaviors and STD Prevalence Between Street-Based and Establishment-Based FSWs in Guangdong Province,China

The major mode of HIV/AIDS transmission in China is now heterosexual activities, but risk for HIV and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) may differ among different strata of female sex workers (FSWs). Respondent-driven sampling was used to recruit 320 FSWs in Guangdong Province, China. The respondents were interviewed using a structured questionnaire, and tested for HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea, and Chlamydia. The street-based FSWs had lower education levels, a higher proportion supporting their families, charged less for their services, and had engaged in commercial sex for a longer period of time than establishment-based FSWs. The proportion consistently using condoms with clients and with regular non-paying partners was also lower. The prevalence of syphilis, gonorrhea, and Chlamydia was higher among street-based sex workers. Being a street-based sex worker, having regular non-paying sex partners, and having non-regular non-paying partners were independent risk factors for inconsistent condom. Street-based FSWs had more risk behaviors than establishment-based FSWs, and should therefore be specifically targeted for HIV as well as STD intervention programs.     

The Potential for Rapid Sexual Transmission of HIV in China: Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Condom Failure Highly Prevalent Among Female Sex Workers

Commercial sex is believed to play a role in the steadily increasing heterosexual transmission of HIV in China, but little attention has been paid to female sex workers working in the entertainment industry. From October to December 2000, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of 482 women in Baise City, Guangxi Autonomous Region, bordering Yunnan Province. Although no participants had antibodies to HIV infection, 4% of study participants tested positive for markers for syphilis and 21% reported being diagnosed with sexually transmitted diseases in the past year. Women reported low rates of consistent condom use with customers (17%), a spouse or fiancé (9%), and casual partners (13%). A substantial proportion experienced condom failure (20% slippage and 13% breakage). Multivariate analyses found that consistent condom use with customers was related to multiple sexual partnerships, higher condom knowledge, and higher condom-use negotiation skills. Multiple sexual partnerships and higher condom-use negotiation skills predicted consistent condom use with casual partners, whereas higher condom-use negotiation skills did so for consistent condom use with a spouse or fiancé. Our data suggest the need for condom education, condom skills training, and the distribution of reliable condoms among female sex workers. HIV prevention efforts must target these women as well as their clients and sex partners to prevent the further spread of HIV to the general population in China.     

美沙酮服药人员HIV阴性配偶高危性行为及影响因素分析

目的了解云南省美沙酮维持治疗人员艾滋病病毒(HIV)阴性配偶(单阳阴配)高危性行为及其影响因素,为针对性地进行干预提供依据。方法选取云南省13个美沙酮门诊所有HIV阳性服药人员的固定性伴,并通过HIV阳性检测筛检出阴性者,采用调查问卷收集包括人口学特征、知识知晓率及高危性行为等数据,并对高危性行为及影响因素进行分析。结果阴性配偶上次发生性关系时使用安全套的占74%;接受过性病、艾滋病免费咨询和HIV检测的较高,分别为90%、92%;但接受过性病检查治疗的仅有28%。无小孩是其不使用安全套的影响因素(OR=0.197)。结论 HIV阴性配偶发生性行为时高危性行为明显,易受HIV传播直接受害,特别是没有小孩的少数民族女性,应加强对HIV阴性配偶的强化干预,加强安全套的推广使用,以降低配偶间性行为HIV传播概率。     

High prevalence of syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases among sex workers in China: potential for fast spread of HIV

OBJECTIVES: In China, in the early 1980s, sexually transmitted diseases (STD) started to increase steeply. Sex workers and their clients appeared to play an important role in the spread of STD. Prostitution is illegal in China, and therefore no specific services exist for sex workers unless they are arrested and detained in re-education centres. Staff of a maternal and neonatal hospital in Guangzhou felt the need for an STD care and prevention programme for sex workers outside detention, and started a programme within their hospital, which was unique in the Chinese context. METHODS: From March 1998 to mid-October 1999 sex workers were recruited through various outreach methods, and were interviewed, counselled and examined for the presence of STD/HIV. RESULTS: A total of 966 women, originating from all over China but working in Guangzhou, entered the programme. The median duration of prostitution was one year, and the median number of clients was seven per week. Antibodies to HIV were present in 1.4%. The prevalence of STD was very high: syphilis 14%, Chlamydia trachomatis 32%, gonorrhoea 8% and trichomoniasis 12.5%. Knowledge about STD/HIV transmission and condom use was poor. CONCLUSION: Given the high prevalence of STD, the potential for the further spread of HIV is clearly present. STD care and prevention programmes for these women, outside detention, are urgently needed, and appear also to be feasible in China.     

The link between sexually transmitted disease clinics and HIV counseling and testing centers: who is not getting referred?

A total of 236 clients attending human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) counseling and testing (C&T) centers and sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics were interviewed to evaluate who is being reached by C&T services and if STD clients are being referred to HIV C&T centers. Respondents receiving HIV C&T reported significantly more sexual risk based on characteristics of their partners, whereas STD clinics respondents more frequently reported previous STD diagnoses and sex with prostitutes. Over 50% of the high-risk individuals attending STD clinics were not referred to HIV C&T centers. The differences in perceived risk of current and future infection between STD and HIV C&T centers and the low referral rates of high-risk individuals for HIV C&T indicate a need for increased education efforts, more effective risk-assessment policies in STD clinics, and a tightening of the link between STD clinics and HIV C&T centers.     

Management of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV prevention in men at high risk: targeting clients and non-paying sexual partners of female sex workers in Benin

OBJECTIVES: Male clients of female sex workers have rarely been specific targets for HIV/sexually transmitted diseases (STD) interventions in sub-Saharan Africa. We assessed the effectiveness of outreach methodology for contacting sexual partners of female sex workers for purposes of HIV/STD prevention in Cotonou, Benin. DESIGN AND METHODS: In collaboration with owners/managers, outreach personnel and female sex workers, 404 clients were recruited on-site at prostitution venues, and provided urine samples for leukocyte esterase dipstick (LED), STD and HIV testing before having sex with female sex workers. After having sex they underwent an interview and physical examination. No payment was made for study participation. Prostitution site personnel (n = 41) and boyfriends of female sex workers (n = 56) were also recruited. RESULTS: In all 68% of the clients approached agreed to participate. On-site LED testing and free STD treatment were important factors in participation. HIV-1 prevalence was several-fold higher than in the general population in Cotonou, at 8.4, 12.2 and 16.1% in clients, personnel and boyfriends respectively, and was associated with increasing age and lack of condom use with female sex workers. Condom use rates by clients with female sex workers were non-negligible but sub-optimal, and low with regular partners. Approximately one-third of clients with regular partners also had other non-female sex worker sex partners. Boyfriends of female sex workers are of particular concern due to high numbers of partners, very low condom use rates and high HIV prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings indicate that male sex partners of female sex workers form a 'bridging population' for HIV/STD transmission both to female sex workers, as well as from female sex workers to the general population of women, particularly regular female partners.     

The relationship between condom use,sexually transmitted diseases,and location of commercial sex transaction among male Hong Kong clients

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the consistency of condom use and the prevalence of self-reported sexually transmitted diseases (STD) among male Hong Kong commercial sex clients with respect to the geographical location of these transactions. DESIGN AND METHODS: Male clients were identified via three independent, population-based surveys conducted in 1998, 1999, and 2001. A unique confidential telephone system was used to collect sensitive information. RESULTS: Respondents patronizing female sex workers (FSW) in 'mainland China only' or in 'mainland China and other places' were more likely to be inconsistent condom users (28 and 34%) than those patronizing FSW in 'Hong Kong only' (9.1%). A similar pattern was found for self-reported STD in the past 6 months (10.1, 8.1 and 1.0%, respectively). Patronizing FSW in mainland China was associated with a higher prevalence of self-reported STD (adjusted OR 4.16), independent of consistent condom use and other potential confounding factors, including calendar year of survey, age, educational attainment, HIV-related knowledge, perceived efficacy of condom use for HIV/AIDS prevention, number of female sex partners, and the presence of a regular female sex partner in the past 6 months. Clients who had commercial sex both in mainland China and Hong Kong were more likely to use condoms in Hong Kong than in mainland China (paired OR 4.67, < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The geographical location of commercial sexual activity is related to the consistency of condom use, irrespective of the clients engaged in such activity. Prevention programmes need to be aware of how risk behaviour is dependent on local contexts.     

北京市农村流动人口的HIV/STD高危性行为和知识分析

目的调查北京市流动人口中存在的感染艾滋病病毒/性传播疾病(HIV/STD)的高危性行为和他们所掌握的艾滋病知识状况。方法在北京市流动人口集中的行业中,用按比例抽样的方法抽取了2222名流动人员,采取问卷调查了解他们拥有的性伙伴数量、参与商业性性行为、安全套使用等高危性行为的情况和艾滋病知识掌握的状况。结果对被调查者中报告有性行为的900人进行了统计分析,结果发现67.4%的人有婚前性行为,31.0%的人有多个性伙伴,9.4%的人参与了商业性性行为,而只有39.0%的人使用过安全套。对全体被调查者的艾滋病知识分析发现,他们的艾滋病知识掌握的相对比较多,熟悉艾滋病传播的三大途径,但对不传播途径没有多大把握。结论加强对流动人口感染HIV/STD的危险和使用安全套的干预。     

东莞市MSM高危行为特征及HIV感染状况

目的了解东莞市男男性行为人群（MSM）的高危行为特征,艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染情况及影响因素,为在该人群中开展防控措施提供依据。方法利用2010—2012年东莞市MSM哨点监测数据,对MSM的人口学特征、行为学特征、性病症状、接受干预服务、HIV和梅毒感染水平等进行分析。结果共调查MSM984人,平均年龄为（30．36±6．71）岁;最近6个月发生过同性、异性性行为的比例分别为73．37％和37．5％,与同性、异性发生性行为时坚持使用安全套的比例分别为48．89％和29．27％。近1年有性病相关症状的MSM的比例为6．81％,接受过于预服务的比例为59．04％。HIV和梅毒抗体阳性率分别为14．23％和15．35％,其中2010—2012年HIV阳性率分别为10．5％、11．33％和22．91％。多因素Logistic回归分析结果表明：艾滋病知识知晓和接受过干预服务与最近6个月同性性行为时坚持使用安全套的关系有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;梅毒抗体阳性、近1年有性病相关症状、年龄在≥40岁、样本来源等因素,与HIV感染的关系有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论东莞市MSM的HIV感染率高,且上升趋势明显,迫切需要加强行为干预,防止艾滋病向一般人群蔓延。     

云南省德宏州酒吧、发廊服务小姐性服务情况调查

于１９９５年９～１０月对云南省德宏州潞西、瑞丽和陇川的５２家酒吧、发廊的７５名服务小姐进行了调查。结果为服务小姐中汉族占８５％，从未上过高中的占９６％，多数（６７％）在所调查的酒吧、发廊工作不足３个月。潞西２６名服务小姐全部否认提供性服务，瑞丽８０％（１６／２０）和陇川８３％（２４／２９）承认提供性服务。仅瑞丽有４人自述提供性服务时每次使用避孕套。提示酒吧、发廊的服务小姐处在感染和传播性病和艾滋病毒的高危险之中。在这一人群中开展针对性的预防性病、艾滋病宣传工作已刻不容缓。     

Sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Yunnan, China

A cross-sectional prevalence survey of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) was conducted among female sex workers (FSWs) in Kunming, Yunnan Province, China. A total of 505 FSWs participated in the survey. All eligible participants gave informed consent. Demographic, behavioral, and clinical information of the participants was gathered by direct structured interviews. Tampon swabs were collected to test for Chlamydia trachomatis, Nesseria gonorrhoeae, and Trichomonas vaginalis and serum specimens were collected to test for HIV antibody by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) screening and Western blot confirmation, syphilis with rapid plasma reagin (RPR) and T. pallidum hemagglutination (TPHA) confirmation, and for HSV-2 antibodies with the HerpeSelect 2 ELISA. The most prevalent bacterial STI was Chlamydia trachomatis (58.6%), followed by Trichomonas vaginalis (43.2%) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (37.8%). Three hundred twenty-seven (65.1%) sex workers had serologic evidence of exposure to HSV-2 infection. Ten percent were positive for HIV infection, all injecting drug users (IDUs); and 9.5% had infection with syphilis. Comprehensive prevention and effective STI services for sex workers and their clients will be the key strategies to the control of STIs, including HIV. Policies and prevention strategies for STI/HIV need to focus on high-risk subpopulations, such as sex workers (particularly sex workers who inject drugs) and their clients.     

Condom use, intervention service utilization and HIV knowledge among female sex workers in China: results of three consecutive cross-sectional surveys in Shandong Province with historically low HIV prevalence

Heterosexual transmission of HIV through contact with female sex workers (FSWs) is a growing concern for the HIV/AIDS epidemic in China. Using consecutive cross-sectional surveys, we examined the prevalence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), risk behaviours, HIV knowledge and the utilization of intervention services among FSWs in Shandong Province. Of 3460 participants, half reported ever having STI-related symptoms, 57.8% had ≥7 clients in the last week, half reported inconsistent use of condoms with clients and 11.2% reported ever using illicit drugs. Consistent use of condoms with clients was associated with higher education, being 20-24 years of age, being recruited from hotels, having ever received free condoms and was inversely associated with STI-related symptoms. HIV-related knowledge was associated with higher education, ever testing for HIV and inversely associated with self-reported STI-related symptoms. The low rates of condom use, high number and frequent turnover of clients, high prevalence of self-reported STIs and drug use highlight the urgency for more effective intervention in these FSWs.     

Risk factors associated with HIV infection in Uganda

Risk factor data were collected in 1,328 inpatients and outpatients in 1987 in 15 hospitals throughout Uganda; 42% were positive for HIV antibodies by ELISA. Seropositivity was associated with urban residence, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), number of sex partners, and sex for payment or with a person with an AIDS-like illness. Homosexuality and intravenous drug abuse, recognized risk factors in western countries, were not seen as risk factors. By multivariate analysis, urban residence and sex for payment were not independently associated with infection. Among females, number of sex partners, sex with a person with an AIDS-like illness, and numbers of episodes of STDs were significantly associated with seropositivity. In males, similar associations were seen, although number of reported sex partners was not independently associated with infection. These findings support the view that heterosexual contact is the predominant mode of transmission in Uganda and suggest that the main risk factors relate to high-risk heterosexual behavior.     

秦皇岛市MSM的HIV、TP、HCV感染状况及影响因素

目的了解秦皇岛市男男性行为人群（MSM）的艾滋病病毒（HIV）、梅毒螺旋体（TP）、丙型肝炎病毒（HCV）感染状况和相关影响因素,提出有针对性的防控性病艾滋病的干预建议。方法 2009-2012年连续4年采用自愿招募和滚雪球的方法,通过自愿咨询检测（VCT）门诊和开展外展干预活动,对第一次接受艾滋病咨询检测的MSM进行问卷调查和血清学检测。结果 4年共招募MSM 1043人。70.76%（738/1043）的人通过网络寻找性伴,4年间,艾滋病知识知晓率、接受艾滋病干预服务和接受HIV检测人数均逐年上升（P〈0.01）。近6个月,898人（86.10%）有过同性肛交行为,其中坚持使用安全套率为42.76%;34.63%（311/898）有过异性性行为,安全套坚持使用率为36.98%;9.02%（81/898）有过商业性性行为,安全套坚持使用率为53.09%。HIV、TP、HCV平均感染率分别为5.75%（60/1043）、7.19%（75/1043）、0.19%（2/1043）,HIV、TP感染率呈逐年上升趋势（P〈0.05）。多因素分析结果显示：文化程度相对低、在当地居住时间短、曾感染过性病是HIV、TP感染率的危险因素;年龄较大的MSM,TP感染的风险更大。结论秦皇岛市MSM HIV、TP感染率较高,应重点加强对年轻MSM的宣传干预力度,切实提高安全意识和安全行为,同时推广网络宣传干预;而在年龄大、已婚的MSM,则应加强TP筛查并提供方便、可及的诊疗服务。在开展性病艾滋病防治宣传的同时不应忽视丙型肝炎防治知识的宣传。     

High rates of transmission of subtype E human immunodeficiency virus type 1 among heterosexual couples in Northern Thailand: role of sexually transmitted diseases and immune compromise.

The heterosexual transmission of subtype E human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection was evaluated in 467 couples in Thailand in whom the man was HIV-1 positive and the woman had no risk factors for HIV other than sex with her infected partner. At baseline, 216 (46.3%) of the 467 women were positive for HIV-1; prevalence of HIV among women was 52.2% when their male partners had CD4+ lymphocyte counts of <200 cells/microL, 45.9% in women whose partners had counts of 200-499 micro/L, and 39.2% in women whose partners had counts of >/=500/microL. Women were twice as likely to be HIV positive if their partners had a history of a sexually transmitted disease (STD); however, their HIV prevalence was 29% among couples who had no STD history. It appears that female partners of men infected with subtype E HIV-1 are at high risk of infection even when the man's CD4+ cell count is relatively high. A high rate of STDs may contribute significantly to this risk [corrected].     

Factors associated with sexually transmitted diseases among prostitutes in Singapore.

From June to December 1990, 806 prostitutes registered with the STD programme in Singapore for regular screening for sexually transmitted diseases (STD) were investigated for factors associated with STD incidence in the preceding year. The majority were foreigners (92.7% Malaysians and 3.1% Thais). Anal sex (0.4%) and intravenous drug use (0.9%) were rare. The overall STD incidence rate was 47.7 per 100. None was human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive. The crude and age-adjusted risk of STD was found to increase significantly with client load. An inverse relationship between condom use and STD risk was also observed. Mean condom use among clients was reported as 56.1% for spontaneous use and estimated as 75.4% following negotiation for condom use by prostitutes. Although the prostitutes negotiated for condom use with majority of the clients (85.5%) who did not use condoms spontaneously, they were successful with only about half of them (54.4%). Health education should be targeted at clients on the protective effects of condom use and at the prostitutes on skills in negotiating condom use.     

Characteristics of female sexually transmitted disease clinic clients who report same-sex behaviour

Female STD clinic clients were categorized by report of sex partners' gender in the preceding 2 months and characterized with respect to HIV risk and STD diagnosis. Among 18,585 visits, 290 women (1.5%) reported sex exclusively with women, and 841 (4.5%) reported sex with both men and women. Relative to women reporting sex only with men, those reporting sex with both men and women reported more recent partners, sex with partners at high risk for HIV, injection drug and crack cocaine use, and exchange of sex for drugs or money. Women reporting sex exclusively with women more frequently reported prior sex with a bisexual man or an HIV-infected partner. Female STD clinic clients who report sex with both men and women may be at increased HIV risk relative to women reporting sex exclusively with men, and women who report sex only with women may be more likely to have had sex with men at high risk for HIV infection.     

HIV/STI prevention interventions targeting FSWs in China: a systematic literature review

A rapid increase in heterosexual transmission of HIV and a high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in China signals potential outbreaks of generalized epidemics. A large proportion of heterosexual transmission has been through commercial sex; thus, millions of female sex workers (FSWs) and their clients play a critical role in the country's HIV/STI epidemics. A number of prevention interventions targeting FSWs have been implemented in response to changes in policy toward HIV as well as growing epidemics. This study reviews existing HIV/STI prevention interventions studies targeting FSWs in China. A total of 25 studies (28 articles) were identified from English and Chinese journal databases. Most studies recruited FSWs from entertainment establishments and had small sample sizes of less than 400. A majority employed a simple pre-post design with an open cohort, none applied a randomized controlled trial, and only two studies had a quasi-experimental design. Venue-based knowledge education and condom promotion represented the typical intervention approach. Some adapted internationally validated programs such as Voluntary Counseling and Testing and 100% Condom Use Programs (CUP), but no scale-up data were reported. Significant intervention effects were reported in most studies, especially increases in HIV/STI-related knowledge and condom use rates. Of the nine studies reporting STI rates, the results were mixed; some even reported increased STIs despite higher condom use. We call for more HIV/STI interventions targeting FSWs in China, particularly, interventions with rigorous design and externally validated measures, and more diversity in intervention programs including biomedical and structural interventions as well as innovative intervention delivery. We also advocate that effective intervention programs be translated into sustainable policies and programs that could have an impact on China's HIV and STI epidemics.     

Rapid HIV testing of clients of a mobile STD/HIV clinic

HIV rapid testing may enhance the effectiveness of a mobile HIV/sexually transmitted disease (STD) screening clinic in at-risk populations who normally do not seek care. Our goal was to determine the usability and post-test counseling rates of rapid HIV testing services for clients tested on a mobile clinic. HIV Oraquick rapid HIV-1 testing (OraSure Technologies, Inc., Bethlehem, PA) (blood) was offered to clients seeking HIV/STI counseling and testing services from the street at predetermined locations in areas of high STD morbidity, drug use, and commercial sex work. Rapid test results were available on the same day at the van within 10 minutes. Disease intervention specialists (DIS) attempted to locate and counsel positive clients who did not stay for results. By comparison, when offered at the same time, 64.5% of clients preferred Oraquick to traditional serologic testing. The post-test counseling rate for clients tested for Oraquick was 89% for infected and 93% for uninfected. By comparison, 11% of infected clients and 40% of uninfected clients tested for traditional test were post-test counseled. Clients who tested for the traditional enzyme immunoassay (EIA) test were told to return to the van in 14 days for results and post-test counseling. In the adjusted model, we also found statistically significant differences comparing clients who choose Oraquick to traditional serologic tests. These data suggest that rapid HIV testing services may enhance the effectiveness of mobile STD/HIV clinics.