Chemicals that modulate stem cell differentiation

Important cellular processes such as cell fate are likely to be controlled by an elaborate orchestration of multiple signaling pathways, many of which are still not well understood or known. Because protein kinases, the members of a large family of proteins involved in modulating many known signaling pathways, are likely to play important roles in balancing multiple signals to modulate cell fate, we focused our initial search for chemical reagents that regulate stem cell fate among known inhibitors of protein kinases. We have screened 41 characterized inhibitors of six major protein kinase subfamilies to alter the orchestration of multiple signaling pathways involved in differentiation of stem cells. We found that some of them cause recognizable changes in the differentiation rates of two types of stem cells, rat mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Among many, we describe the two most effective derivatives of the same scaffold compound, isoquinolinesulfonamide, on the stem cell differentiation: rat MSCs to chondrocytes and mouse ESCs to dopaminergic neurons.     

The biology of cancer stem cells and its clinical implication in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly malignant tumor with limited treatment options in its advanced state. The molecular mechanisms underlying HCC remain unclear because of the complexity of its multi-step development process. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are defined as a small population of cells within a tumor that possess the capability for self-renewal and the generation of heterogeneous lineages of cancer cells. To date, there have been two theories concerning the mechanism of carcinogenesis, i.e., the stochastic (clonal evolution) model and the hierarchical (cancer stem cell-driven) model. The concept of the CSC has been established over the past decade, and the roles of CSCs in the carcinogenic processes of various cancers, including HCC, have been emphasized. Previous experimental and clinical evidence indicated the existence of liver CSCs; however, the potential mechanistic links between liver CSCs and the development of HCC in humans are not fully understood. Although definitive cell surface markers for liver CSCs have not yet been found, several putative markers have been identified, which allow the prospective isolation of CSCs from HCC. The identification and characterization of CSCs in HCC is essential for a better understanding of tumor initiation or progression in relation to signaling pathways. These markers could be used along with clinical parameters for the prediction of chemoresistance, radioresistance, metastasis and survival and may represent potential targets for the development of new molecular therapies against HCC. This review describes the current evidence for the existence and function of liver CSCs and discuss the clinical implications of CSCs in patients demonstrating resistance to conventional anti-cancer therapies, as well as clinical outcomes. Such data may provide a future perspective for targeted therapy in HCC.     

Patterning definitive hematopoietic stem cells from embryonic stem cells

Derived from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, embryonic stem cells (ESCs) retain the pluripotent features of early embryonic epiblast cells. In vitro, ESCs undergo spontaneous differentiation into a multitude of tissues, and thus are a powerful tool for the study of early developmental processes and a promising resource for cell-based therapies. We have pursued the derivation of functional, multipotent and engraftable hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from ESCs in order to investigate the genetic pathways specifying blood formation, as well as to lay the foundation for hematopoietic cell replacement therapies based on engineered ESCs. Theoretically, the generation of HSCs from patient-specific ESCs derived by nuclear transfer could provide for autologous hematopoietic therapies for the treatment of malignant and genetic bone marrow disorders. Although significant progress has been made in achieving hematopoietic differentiation from both murine and human ESCs, we have only a primitive understanding of the underlying mechanisms that specify hematopoietic cell fate, and a very limited capacity to direct the differentiation of the definitive HSC that would be suitable for clinical engraftment studies. Here we will review the progress to date and the significant problems that remain, and outline a strategy to achieve the directed differentiation of HSCs under conditions that might be appropriate for clinical scale-up and disease applications.     

内源性心脏干/祖细胞活化的研究进展

随着现代生活方式的改变和老龄化的问题,心血管疾病已成为威胁人类健康的第一杀手。然而当前医疗诊治技术仍难以彻底改善心肌梗死后缺血性心肌病及心力衰竭患者的预后。干细胞的出现为心肌再生带来了新的希望。与其他成体干细胞相比,内源性心脏干细胞(CSCs)具有分化成心肌细胞和血管内皮细胞的潜能,可对受损心肌起到明显的修复作用。研究发现,心肌梗死后内源性CSCs的激活与多种因素有关。最近几年,内源性CSCs活化介导的心肌修复引起了研究人员极大的兴趣。本文将对CSCs激活所涉及的主要途径进行论述,以深化对内源性CSCs功能的理解。     

Hepatic cancer stem cells and drug resistance: Relevance in targeted therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of most common malignancies in the world. Systemic treatments for HCC, particularly for advanced stages, are limited by the drug resistance phenomenon which ultimately leads to therapy failure. Recent studies have indicated an association between drug resistance and the existence of the cancer stem cells (CSCs) as tumor initiating cells. The CSCs are resistant to conventional chemotherapies and might be related to the mechanisms of the ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters and alterations in the CSCs signaling pathways. Therefore, to contribute to the development of new HCC treatments, further information on the characterization of CSCs, the modulation of the ABC transporters expression and function and the signaling pathway involved in the self renewal, initiation and maintenance of the cancer are required. The combination of transporters modulators/inhibitors with molecular targeted therapies may be a potent strategy to block the tumoral progression. This review summarizes the association of CSCs, drug resistance, ABC transporters activities and changes in signaling pathways as a guide for future molecular therapy for HCC.     

Regulation of colon cancer recurrence and development of therapeutic strategies

Recurrence of colon cancer still remains a major issue which affects nearly 50% of patients treated by conventional therapeutics. Although the underlying causative factor(s) is not fully understood, development of drug-resistance has been associated with induction of cancer stem or stem-like cells (CSCs) which constitute a small sub-population of tumor cells known to be highly resistant to chemotherapy. In fact, the discovery of CSCs in a variety of tumors (including colon cancer) has changed the view of carcinogenesis and therapeutic strategies. Emerging reports have indicated that to improve patient outcomes, conventional anticancer therapies should be replaced with specifi c approaches targeting CSCs. Thus, therapeutic strategies that specifically target CSCs are being sought to reduce the risk of relapse and metastasis. In order to specifi cally target colon CSCs (while sparing somatic intestinal stem cells), it is critical to identify unique deregulated pathways responsible for self-renewal of CSCs and colon cancer recurrence. Colon CSCs present a unique opportunity to better understand the biology of solid tumors. Thus, a better understanding of the clinical signs and symptoms of colon cancer patients (under-going surgery or chemotherapy) during perioperative periods, along with the underlying regulatory events affecting the stem/progenitor cell self-renewal and differentiation of colon epithelial cells, is of immense importance. In this review we discuss the implication of clinical factors and the emerging role of CSCs during recurrence of colon cancer along with the development of new therapeutic strategies involving the use of natural agents.     

Bypassing heterogeneity: the road to embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte specification

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are a pluripotent cell type that may be considered for treatments in cell replacement therapies, such as for cardiovascular disease. The general premise is that ESCs may be differentiated in vitro into embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (ESCMs). These ESCMs may then be directly injected into the damaged myocardium, which would facilitate the regeneration of the tissue. Indeed, multiple animal studies have shown this methodology to be promising. However, before these cells can be taken to clinical trials, several obstacles need to be overcome, including heterogeneity, which is a potential problem during ESC maintenance and differentiation. This review focuses on signaling pathways, such a Wnt/beta-catenin and bone morphogenic protein, (BMP), which influence cardiomyocyte specification from ESCs. By modifying signaling pathways in a temporal manner, we may be able to promote ESCM differentiation and reduce heterogeneity. Furthermore, we have recently found that by modifying the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-Grb2-Ras-Mek-Erk pathway, we can effectively reduce the heterogeneity found during normal ESC maintenance. Such approaches will be beneficial in promoting the possibility of using ESCMs in transplantation therapies.     

Cancer stem cells as therapeutic targets of hepato‐biliary‐pancreatic cancers

Heterogeneity is one of the essential hallmarks of malignancies. Within bulk cancer cells, a striking variability differs in biological characteristics including the proliferation rate, cell–cell interaction, metastatic tendency and even sensitivity to anticancer therapies. Such diversity makes the investigation and treatment of the cancers complicated. Increasing evidence suggests this plasticity of cancers is a result of self‐renewing and differentiation of a small subpopulation of cancer cells with stem‐like properties, called cancer stem cells (CSCs). More importantly, CSCs are believed to be responsible for the resistance to conventional therapies and metastatic abilities in clinical practice. This review summarizes the molecular pathogenesis of hepato‐biliary‐pancreatic CSCs on the basis of the recent studies, and promising strategy of novel therapy targeting the signal transduction pathways or potentially epigenetic addictions of CSCs.     

COX-2 Promotes Migration and Invasion by the Side Population of Cancer Stem Cell-Like Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are thought to be responsible for tumor relapse and metastasis due to their abilities to self-renew, differentiate, and give rise to new tumors. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is highly expressed in several kinds of CSCs, and it helps promote stem cell renewal, proliferation, and radioresistance. Whether and how COX-2 contributes to CSC migration and invasion is unclear. In this study, COX-2 was overexpressed in the CSC-like side population (SP) of the human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line HCCLM3. COX-2 overexpression significantly enhanced migration and invasion of SP cells, while reducing expression of metastasis-related proteins PDCD4 and PTEN. Treating SP cells with the selective COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib down-regulated COX-2 and caused a dose-dependent reduction in cell migration and invasion, which was associated with up-regulation of PDCD4 and PTEN. These results suggest that COX-2 exerts pro-metastatic effects on SP cells, and that these effects are mediated at least partly through regulation of PDCD4 and PTEN expression. These results further suggest that celecoxib may be a promising anti-metastatic agent to reduce migration and invasion by hepatic CSCs.     

恶性脑胶质瘤U87细胞系肿瘤干细胞放疗敏感性的体外实验研究

目的探讨脑胶质瘤细胞系U87细胞及其肿瘤干细胞（CSCs）对体外放疗的敏感性。方法应用神经干细胞（NSCs）培养基分离培养形成细胞球克隆,检测细胞球细胞的NSCs特性。采用不同剂量放射线照射U87细胞及其CSCs,应用集落形成实验和生存曲线检测其生存情况。结果 U87细胞在NSCs培养基中形成悬浮的细胞球克隆,具有自我更新和多向分化能力,表达CD133、Nestin;两种细胞的存活率均随照射剂量增加而下降,且CSCs的存活率明显高于U87细胞（P〈0.01）。结论在体外条件下,CSCs的放射敏感性明显低于U87细胞,其可能是恶性脑胶质瘤放疗抵抗的主要原因。     

航空异常环境因素对心脏干细胞的影响

随着对干细胞研究的不断深入，干细胞治疗心脏疾病的作用机制也越来越明晰。心脏干细胞（CSCs）具有组织特异性和心系定向分化潜能，因此，在心脏疾病治疗方面较其他种类的干细胞具有明显优势。根据CSCs表达标记物的不同，可进一步将其分为不同的族群。本文旨在介绍不同族群CSCs的表型特征、分化潜能及临床应用前景，并重点关注缺氧、辐射等航空异常环境因素对CSCs功能和状态的影响。     

Synthetic small molecules that control stem cell fate

In an attempt to better understand and control the processes that regulate stem cell fate, we have set out to identify small molecules that induce neuronal differentiation in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). A high-throughput phenotypic cell-based screen of kinase-directed combinatorial libraries led to the discovery of TWS119, a 4,6-disubstituted pyrrolopyrimidine that can induce neurogenesis in murine ESCs. The target of TWS119 was shown to be glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) by both affinity-based and biochemical methods. This study provides evidence that GSK-3beta is involved in the induction of mammalian neurogenesis in ESCs. This and such other molecules are likely to provide insights into the molecular mechanisms that control stem cell fate, and may ultimately be useful to in vivo stem cell biology and therapy.     

Neuroblastoma stem cells - mechanisms of chemoresistance and histonedeacetylase inhibitors

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) form a?small proportion of tumor cells that have stem cell properties: self-renewal capacity, the ability to develop into different lineages and proliferative potential. The interest in CSCs emerged from their expected role in initiation, progression and recurrence of many tumors. They are generally resistant to conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. There are two hypotheses about their origin: The first assumes that CSCs may arise from normal stem cells, and the second supposes that differentiated cells acquire the properties of CSCs. Both hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, as it is possible that CSCs have a?diverse origin in different tumors. CD133+ cells (CD133 is marker of CSC in some tumors) isolated from NBL, osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma cell lines are resistant to cisplatin, carboplatin, etoposide and doxorubicin than the CD133- ones. Being resistant to chemotherapy, there were many attempts to target CSCs epigenetically including the use of histone deacetylase inhibitors. The diverse influence of valproic acid (histone deacetylase inhibitor) on normal and cancer stem cells was proved in different experiments. We have found an increase percentage of CD133+ NBL cells after their incubation with VPA in a?dose that does not induce apoptosis. Further researches on CSCs and clinical application for their detection are necessary: (i) to define the CSC function in carcinogenesis, cancer development and their role in metastasis; (ii) to find a?specific marker for CSCs in different tumors; (iii) to explain the role of different pathways that determine their behavior and (iv) to explain mechanisms of chemoresistance of CSCs. Keywords: Cancer stem cells; CD133; Neuroblastoma; Histone deacetylase inhibitors.     

Embryonic stem cells as a source of pulmonary epithelium in vitro and in vivo

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) derived from the preimplantation blastocyst are pluripotent and capable of indefinite expansion in vitro. As such, they present a cell source to derive a potentially inexhaustible supply of pulmonary cells and tissue. ESC-derived pulmonary epithelium could be used for in vitro cell or tissue models or, in the future, implanted into the damaged or diseased lung to effect repair. Efforts to date have largely focused on obtaining distal lung epithelial phenotypes from ESCs, notably alveolar epithelium. Several disparate methods have been developed to enhance differentiation of ESCs into pulmonary epithelial lineages; these are broadly based on recapitulating developmental signaling events, mimicking the physical environment, or forcibly reprogramming the ESC nucleus. Early findings of our preclinical experiments implanting differentiated ESCs into the injured lung are also described here. Future efforts will focus on maximizing ESC differentiation efficiency and yield of the target phenotype, as well as characterizing the function of derived cells in vivo and in vitro.     

Strategies to produce hepatocytes and hepatocyte-like cells from pluripotent stem cells

Human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a potent source for unlimited production of hepatocytes and hepatocyte-like cells that may replace primary human hepatocytes in a variety of fields including liver cell therapy, liver tissue engineering, manufacturing bioartificial liver, modeling inherited and chronic liver diseases, drug screening and toxicity testing. Human ESCs are able to spontaneously form embryoid bodies, which then spontaneously differentiate to various tissue-specific cell lineages containing a total of 10-30% albumin-producing hepatocytes and hepatocyte-like cells. Enrichment of embryoid bodies with the definitive endoderm, from which hepatocytes arise, yields increasing the final ratio of hepatocyte population up by 50-65%. Current strategies of the directed differentiation of human ESCs (and iPSCs) to hepatocytes that reproduce liver embryogenesis by sequential stimulation of culturing ESCs with tissue-specific growth factors result in achieving the differentiation rate up to 60-80%. In the future, directed differentiation of human ESCs and iPSCs to hepatocytes should be further optimized towards generating homogeneous cultures of hepatocytes in order to avoid expensive procedures of separation and isolation of hepatocytes and hepatocyte-like cells.     

肿瘤干细胞的研究进展

肿瘤干细胞是指肿瘤组织中存在的一小群具有自我更新能力和多向分化潜能的细胞。肿瘤干细胞主宰着肿瘤分化、癌细胞增殖、自我更新及血管形成等诸多方面。如果能够有效抑制肿瘤干细胞,就可以从源头上阻断恶性肿瘤的发生、发展。本文对肿瘤干细胞的起源、肿瘤干细胞学说的发展、肿瘤干细胞与肿瘤异质性、转移和耐药的关系以及针对肿瘤干细胞的治疗策略等方面进行综述,为未来肿瘤的诊断和治疗提供新思路。     

Recent insights into hepatic cancer stem cells

It has been suggested that the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is related to the existence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) or tumor-initiating cells. Although CSCs populations may be recognized by use of stem cell markers and/or their functional capacities, their profiles might be diverse, because of the heterogeneity of HCC among individuals. Recent studies indicate that activation of CSCs is related to dysregulation of crucial molecular signaling pathways able to alter the intrinsic properties of normal stem cells. This short review describes the latest evidence of the presence of CSCs, alteration of several developmental and oncogenic pathways, CSC-related microRNAs, and drug resistance in HCC. This information may aid the development of potential novel therapy targeting CSCs in HCC.     

Involvement of non-vascular stem cells in blood vessel formation

Blood vessels clearly act as conduits for blood flow, but recently the concept that they are also involved in organ maintenance, especially by providing a niche for organ-specific stem cells, has begun to emerge. Moreover, several lines of evidence suggest that hematopoietic stem cells can differentiate directly into cells composing blood vessels. Recently, cancer stem cells (CSCs) have also been assigned these roles in the cancer microenvironment. Although anti-angiogenic drugs have been developed and are utilized in the clinic for their anti-tumor activity, their suppressive effects on tumor growth have been disappointing. This may be caused by transferring drug resistance from CSCs to endothelial cells. It has been suggested that CSCs localize in the peri-vascular niche. Therefore, it is extremely important to know how the vascular niche maintains CSCs, as such knowledge may enable us to develop promising new approaches to cancer treatment.