Predicting Ethnic Variation in Adaptation to Later Life: Styles of Socioemotional Functioning and Constrained Heterotypy

It is an axiom of social gerontology that populations of older individuals become increasingly differentiated as they age. Adaptations to physical and social losses and the increased dependency that typically accompany greater age are likely to be similarly heterogeneous, with different individuals adjusting to the aging process in widely diverse ways. In this paper we consider how individuals with diverse emotional and regulatory profiles, different levels of religiosity, and varied patterns of social relatedness fare as they age. Specifically, we examine the relation between ethnicity and patterns of socioemotional adaptation in a large, ethnically diverse sample (N = 1118) of community-dwelling older adults. Cluster analysis was applied to 11 measures of socioemotional functioning. Ten qualitatively different profiles were extracted and then related to a measure of physical resiliency. Consistent with ethnographic and psychological theory, individuals from different ethnic backgrounds were unevenly distributed across the clusters. Resilient participants of African descent (African Americans, Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Barbadians) were more likely to manifest patterns of adaptation characterized by religious beliefs, while resilient US-born Whites and Immigrant Whites were more likely to be resilient as a result of non-religious social connectedness. Taken together, although these data underscore the diversity of adaptation to later life, we suggest that patterns of successful adaptation vary systematically across ethnic groups. Implications for the continued study of ethnicity in aging and directions for future research are given.     

Physical hardiness and styles of socioemotional functioning in later life

Although the aging literature suggests that there are many paths to later life adjustment, there have been few empirical attempts to identify different patterns of adaptation, or their relation to adaptive outcome. As a way to identify patterns of socioemotional functioning in later life associated with physical hardiness, a cluster analysis was applied to 11 measures of socioemotional functioning in a large sample (N = 1,085) of older adults (65-86 years). Ten subgroups were extracted, with clusters of individuals being primarily defined by social network variables, religious characteristics, and emotion profiles. Groups were then compared on a measure of physical hardiness. Patterns of adaptation characterized by high levels of negative emotions tended to represent less hardy adaptation, although there were nonetheless some patterns of noteworthy exception. In contrast, however, patterns of adaptation characterized by religiosity were typically associated with greater hardiness. Finally, physical hardiness was not exclusively the province of individuals exhibiting close social networks, with some groups high in connectedness being less likely to report high hardiness.     

Surprising lack of sex differences in normal cognitive aging in twins

Sex differences in the etiology of normal cognitive functioning in aging remain largely unexplored. We conducted an investigation of genetic and environmental contributions to sex differences in level of cognitive performance and rate of decline in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA) (Finkel & Pedersen, 2004) data set. Behavioral genetic parameterizations of a latent growth curve model were fit to longitudinal data on 11 cognitive measures. Seven hundred and ninety-eight non-demented individuals had cognitive data across four waves of measurement covering 13 years. Participants ranged in age from 44 to 88 at first testing wave; 60% were female. Results indicated sex differences in mean performance for five cognitive measures and in rates of decline for Information and Card Rotations. Only Synonyms demonstrated sex differences in genetic and environmental contributions to mean performance: heritability was higher in men than women. Despite differential longevity and susceptibility to disease, there are no consistent indications that men and women show different patterns of cognitive aging.     

Age and changes in work: Causes and contrasts

As authors Marshall and Marshall write, company-based human resources policies may be influenced by many factors, such as changing demographics, global economic changes, technological change, and ideologies governing corporate restructuring. Alternatively, these factors may have little direct influence on policy at the company level. In this article, five Canadian case studies, two of them matched in the United States, are drawn upon to investigate company policies influencing the lives of older workers and factors associated with exit from employment. The cases cover the following sectors: the insurance industry, the garment industry, steel manufacturing, telecommunications, gas transmission and petrochemical manufacturing. Formal policy attention to demographic change or the ageing workforce was rare in the companies studied. However, company policies adopted for a variety of reasons had important consequences for their older workers and for age relations in the company. The fact or threat of corporate downsizing pervaded most work contexts, but different approaches taken by the companies had distinct outcomes for working life and the subsequent demographic structure of the firm. While demographic, technological, or economic factors can have important influences on company policies affecting older workers, none of these factors is highly deterministic in its effects. Policy decisions at the company level take these factors into account in widely differing ways. Authors’ note: This article emanates from the Issues of an Aging Workforce Project, Institute for Human Development, Life Course and Aging, University of Toronto, Victor W. Marshall, Principal Investigator, funded by Human Resources Development Canada. We thank Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada, The Prudential Life Insurance Company of America, NOVA Corporation, Bell Canada, Slater Steels, the Quebec Fashion Apparel Manufacturers’ Guild, UNITE, the Garment Industry Development Corporation (New York City) and managers and employees in all case study sites, for participating in the research reported here. The study was conducted while the authors were at The University of Toronto.     

Lessons Learned from a Decade of Multicenter Cooperative Clinical Trials in Stress Urinary Incontinence

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is estimated to affect 12 % to 55 % of women at some point in their life. Furthermore, 15 % to 35 % of adult American women report that their quality of life is altered by urinary incontinence. In addition to the toll SUI takes on patient lives—physically, socially and psychologically—it also comes at a significant cost to health care systems. In 1999, as an initiative of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), the Urinary Incontinence Treatment Network (UITN) was born, with the primary task of developing trials to evaluate treatment of urinary incontinence in women. The purpose of this article is to review the SUI trials conducted and challenges faced, and to highlight the lessons learned from a decade of UITN work.     

Stability of sex differences in cognition in advanced old age: the role of education and attrition

We examined whether patterns of sex differences on tasks of perceptual speed, episodic memory, verbal fluency, and verbal knowledge are maintained during advanced old age. Using incomplete 13-year longitudinal data from participants in the Berlin Aging Study screened for dementia (N = 368; M = 83 years; range 70-100 years at baseline assessment), we estimated sex-specific age trajectories of cognitive change and explored the contributing role of education and attrition. We found that women and men declined virtually in parallel, with no evidence of differential change. After we controlled for age cohort-related differences in education, women outperformed men on tasks in the four cognitive domains. Findings also provide initial evidence that sex differences might be masked by differential patterns of sample attrition.     

Heterosexual Anal Sex Among Female Drug Users: U.S. National Compared to Local Long Beach, California Data

Receptive anal sex is a well-studied Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) high-risk behavior among gay and bisexual men, yet previous research indicates that more women than men may be at risk from heterosexual anal sex (HAS). 1991-1996 data from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Cooperative Agreement (CA) were analyzed to model risk for women who reported having had HAS in the 30 days prior to interview. This model was then tested on recent data (2001-2006) collected on women in Long Beach, California. The multivariate model predicting anal sex in the NIDA CA dataset included sex trading; risk perception for HIV; ever had gonorrhea; sex while high; and drugs used in the last 30 days. African American race/ethnicity and older age were inversely associated with HAS. Risk factors common to both samples of women were number of days used amphetamine in the last month and risk perception for HIV.     

Consequences of men’s retirement for the continuation of work-related personal relationships

Retirement is an important life-cycle marker and has a major impact on an individual’s functioning. Based upon the social convoy model, it is hypothesized that retirement decreases the likelihood of continuation of coworker relationships. Socio-emotional selectivity theory predicts a decline in the number of peripheral relationships with ageing and thereby a decline in network size and number of co-worker relationships among working and retired people. Data comes from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam, with five observations between 1992 and 2002. At baseline, 226 men aged 54–81 years were employed; 166 men retired in the course of the study. The results of multilevel regression analyses showed a stable network size for both working and retired men. Among all men, the number of work-related network members declined, but more strongly among retirees. It is concluded that the convoy model fits better with the data than does socio-emotional selectivity theory. His research interests include developments in personal networks and the effects of personal network characteristics and social support on well-being. This study is based on data collected in the context of the “Living Arrangements and Social Networks of Older Adults” and “Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam” research programs. These programs are conducted at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam and the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute in The Hague, and are funded by the Netherlands Program for Research on Ageing (NESTOR) and the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports.     

Motor functioning differentially predicts mortality in men and women

IntroductionResearch indicates gender differences in functional performance at advanced ages, but little is known about their impact on longevity for men and women.ObjectiveTo derive a set of motor function factors from a battery of functional performance measures and examine their associations with mortality, incorporating possible gender interactions.MethodAnalyses were performed on the longitudinal Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA) including twenty-four assessments of motor function up to six times over a 19-year period. Three motor factors were derived from several factor analyses; fine motor, balance/upper strength, and flexibility. A latent growth curve model was used to capture longitudinal age changes in the motor factors and generated estimates of intercept at age 70 (I), rates of change before (S1) and after age 70 (S2) for each factor. Cox regression models were used to determine how gender in interaction with the motor factors was related to mortality.ResultsFemales demonstrated lower functional performance in all motor functions relative to men. Cox regression survival analyses demonstrated that both balance/upper strength, and fine motor function were significantly related to mortality. Gender specific analyses revealed that this was true for women only. For men, none of the motor factors were related to mortality.ConclusionWomen demonstrated more difficulties in all functioning facets, and only among women were motor functioning (balance/upper strength and fine motor function) associated with mortality. These results provide evidence for the importance of considering motor functioning, and foremost observed gender differences when planning for individualized treatment and rehabilitation.     

Some Data-Driven Reflections on Priorities in AIDS Network Research

Risk networks can transmit HIV or other infections; social networks can transmit social influence and thus help shape norms and behaviors. This primarily-theoretical paper starts with a review of network concepts, and then presents data from a New York network study to study patterns of sexual and injection linkages among IDUs and other drug users and nonusers, men who have sex with men, women who have sex with women, other men and other women in a high-risk community and the distribution of HIV, sex at group sex events, and health intravention behaviors in this network. It then discusses how risk network microstructures might influence HIV epidemics and urban vulnerability to epidemics; what social and other forces (such as “Big Events” like wars or ecological disasters) might shape networks and their associated norms, intraventions, practices and behaviors; and how network theory and research have and may continue to contribute to developing interventions against HIV epidemics.     

Midcourse in the United States: Does unpaid community participation replace paid work?

This study examines the links between formal community participation (defined as volunteer work for an organization) in the United States and psychological well-being, focusing on retirement as a key status transition. It draws on data from 762 American retirees and not-yet-retired older workers in the midcourse years (in their 50s, 60s, and early 70s) to examine: (1) whether unpaid community participation of retirees compensates for the loss of connectedness associated with their paid career jobs, and (2) whether community participation predicts the well-being of various subgroups of retirees. We find little difference in the community participation of midcourse Americans by their retirement status. But community participation does predict the well-being of retirees, supporting a compensatory hypothesis. Dividing the sample of retirees into those who engage in post-retirement paid work and those who do not reveals a positive association between community participation and well-being for non-workers only. Community participation appears especially salutary for the well-being of some subgroups of retirees in the United States (men more than women, those with less income, and those in poor health). She does research on gender, age, and the life course. Vivian Fields, former Project Manager of the Cornell Retirement and Well-Being Study, has been researching issues regarding aging and retirement for over 20 years. Her previous research includes such topics as women in retirement, Social Security’s effect on retirement age, and the feasibility of partial retirement. This research was supported by grants #P50 AG11711-01 and #P50AG11711-06 from the National Institute on Aging (Karl Pillemer and Phyllis Moen, Co-Principal Investigators), and grant #96-6-9 and 99-6-23 from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (Phyllis Moen, Principal Investigator).     

Midcourse in the United States: Does unpaid community participation replace paid work?

This study examines the links between formal community participation (defined as volunteer work for an organization) in the United States and psychological well-being, focusing on retirement as a key status transition. It draws on data from 762 American retirees and not-yet-retired older workers in the midcourse years (in their 50s, 60s, and early 70s) to examine: (1) whether unpaid community participation of retirees compensates for the loss of connectedness associated with their paid career jobs, and (2) whether community participation predicts the well-being of various subgroups of retirees. We find little difference in the community participation of midcourse Americans by their retirement status. But community participation does predict the well-being of retirees, supporting a compensatory hypothesis. Dividing the sample of retirees into those who engage in post-retirement paid work and those who do not reveals a positive association between community participation and well-being for non-workers only. Community participation appears especially salutary for the well-being of some subgroups of retirees in the United States (men more than women, those with less income, and those in poor health). She does research on gender, age, and the life course. Vivian Fields, former Project Manager of the Cornell Retirement and Well-Being Study, has been researching issues regarding aging and retirement for over 20 years. Her previous research includes such topics as women in retirement, Social Security’s effect on retirement age, and the feasibility of partial retirement. This research was supported by grants #P50 AG11711-01 and #P50AG11711-06 from the National Institute on Aging (Karl Pillemer and Phyllis Moen, Co-Principal Investigators), and grant #96-6-9 and 99-6-23 from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (Phyllis Moen, Principal Investigator).     

Developing technology to support the functional independence of older adults

Maintaining functional independence is a high priority for many older adults. Often, staying in their own homes is key to such independence. Computer technology has the potential to assist in this goal by supporting the everyday tasks of older individuals, as well as by aiding caregivers and family members. Our research in advanced computing technologies explores how computational capabilities can enhance day-to-day activities. The computer is not a tool to be picked up, used, and then set aside; it is a constant partner in daily activities. The challenge is to design interfaces that reflect and support ongoing activities of daily life but not be inappropriately intrusive. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the issues that must be considered to ensure success of these development efforts, including older adults’ attitudes towards technology as well as their needs and capabilities. We present two illustrative example projects: one designed to meet daily awareness needs of adult children concerned about the well-being of a senior parent, and another that can provide surrogate memory aids for household tasks. These examples demonstrate the complexity of the issues involved in designing the computationally capable home of the future and provide direction for future research and development efforts. Elizabeth D. Mynatt is an Assistant Professor in the College of Computing at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Dr. Mynatt received her Ph.D. (1995) in computer science from Georgia Institute of Technology. Her research program in “Everyday Computing” examines the human-computer interface implications of having computation continuously present in many aspects of everyday life. Wendy A. Rogers is a Professor in the School of Psychology at Georgia Institute of Technology in the Engineering and Experimental Psychology Programs. She received her Ph.D. (1991) in Experimental Psychology from Georgia Institute of Technology. Her research interests include skill acquisition, human factors, training, and cognitive aging. Research reported in this article was supported in part by the following grants: Grant P01 AG17211 from the National Institutes of Health (National Institute on Aging) under the auspices of the Center for Research and Education on Aging and Technology Enhancement (CREATE, one of the Edward R. Roybal Centers for Research on Applied Gerontology); Award 0121661 “The Aware Home: Sustaining the Quality of Life for an Aging Population” from the National Science Foundation; and the Aware Home Research Initiative industrial partners. Author order is alphabetical and represents equal contributions of the two authors. Correspondence concerning this article may be sent to Wendy A. Rogers, School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0170 (e-mail: wr43@prism.gatech.edu).     

Spatiotemporal components of the 3‐D gait analysis of community‐dwelling middle‐aged and elderly Japanese: Age‐ and sex‐related differences

Aim: To describe age‐ and sex‐related differences in gait patterns of community‐living men and women using 3‐D gait analysis. Methods: Subjects (n = 2006) aged 40–84 years participated in the National Institute for Longevity Sciences‐Longitudinal Study of Aging (NILS‐LSA). Spatiotemporal components, including velocity, step length, step frequency, and double support time during a gait cycle, were calculated from 3‐D coordinates and vertical force data. Velocity, step length and step frequency were normalized by leg length and acceleration due to gravity, and double support time was normalized to gait cycle duration. Results: Spatiotemporal walking variables of brisk velocity and step length were significantly greater in men than in women, while comfortable velocity and comfortable and brisk step frequencies and double support times were greater in women than in men. Age‐related changes were marked at 70–84 years in most spatiotemporal variables in both sexes during comfortable walking. During brisk walking, age‐related changes were observed from a younger age than during comfortable walking, and there were sex‐related differences. Conclusion: The age‐related gait alteration was obvious among those aged 70 years and older, and it accelerated markedly in women's brisk walking intensity. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2011; 11: 39–49.     

Individual and social resources predicting well-being and functioning in the later years: Conceptual models, research and practice

With increasing age, older adults need to draw on their individual and socioeconomic resources to adapt to challenges in daily life. A resource model of developmental adaptation is proposed as a conceptual guide for studies emphasizing the importance of psychosocial resources as mediators and moderators of adjustment. Empirical evidence supporting the resource model of developmental adaptation based on findings from the Georgia Centenarian Study suggests that cumulative adverse events drain socioeconomic resources and increase levels of anxiety. Socioeconomic resources exert a stronger effect on mental and functional health than individual resources. Finally, cumulative events predict functional health only for anxious individuals and those with extreme levels of support. Practical implications of this work suggest that those working with older adults need to consider the entire biography of older adults to understand adaptation in later life. Furthermore, service providers and policy makers are challenged to help increase or maintain the level of socioeconomic resources, particularly in the oldest-old population. Peter Martin is a professor of Human Development and Family Studies and the Director of the Gerontology Program at Iowa State University. He has conducted research on personality, stress, coping, and well-being in later life with an emphasis on the oldest old.     

Preferred retirement timing and retirement satisfaction in women

Previous research on retirement relied heavily on samples of male retirees; it also emphasized objective predictors of retirement adjustment, such as occupational position, income, or age. Some recent studies, however, indicate that retirement signifies a major life event for women. Furthermore, as the literature on role transitions suggests, it is a combination of objective and subjective retirement circumstances that impinge on adaptation to this life event. This study explores retirement conditions affecting women's preferred retirement timing and retirement satisfaction. It is based on the assumption that sex differences in the retirement experience render retirement adjustment processes different for men and women, and it aims at identifying retirement conditions that are of primary importance to women.     

Diabetes mellitus and functional impairment in Taiwanese older men and women

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is strongly related to many kinds of functional impairment, even after adjusting for demographic and comorbid conditions. The current study examined sex differences in the relationships between Type 2 diabetes mellitus and functional impairment in an Asian population sample. Data were obtained from a national survey, the Social Environment and Biomarkers of Aging Study (SEBAS) in Taiwan. A total of 652 older adults aged ≥65 years were included in the study. Pearson's χ²-test and multiple logistic regression analysis were used to examine the relationships between diabetes and functional impairments in older men and women. The reported numbers of impairments were significantly higher in women, in those aged ≥75 years, and in those with diabetes. There were sex and age differences in the relationships between diabetes and functional difficulties. Even after adjustment for age, education, and co-morbid conditions, men with diabetes were about four times more likely to have difficulties related to self-care, and women with diabetes were about two to three times more likely to have difficulties related to higher functioning than their non-diabetic counterparts. Sex differences should be considered when understanding the relationships between diabetes and functional impairments in older adults.     

Coordinated-care teams: Improving health and social care for older Israelis

Conclusion Despite the difficulties, professionals involved in the demonstration program at all levels were convinced that this was indeed the most appropriate way to coordinate care within the Israeli system. A decisive majority of field workers participating in the demonstration program were satisfied with the work of the coordinated-care team and felt that teamwork vastly improved the quality of care for the elderly. It seems that the model of inter-organizational and interdisciplinary teams provides the structural conditions that enable professionals to care for the elderly according to their own perceptions of good professional practices. These naturally include comprehensiveness and continuity of care, which enable them to assume more responsibility for all the elderly’s needs. Because the program was based on existing providers of care, it was not difficult to integrate care and case management functions, thereby enabling the teams to reach their professional goals. Acceptance on the part of professionals of shared responsibility capitalized on the advantages of teamwork. This proved to be effective in overcoming previous conflicts among the organizations and helped to structure more clearly the boundaries of responsibility of each team member and each organization. Israel responds to its growing numbers of disabled elderly and their needs for comprehensive services with nurse/social worker teams who share responsibilities and reap professional benefits. Jenny Brodsky, whose background is in sociology, is a researcher at the JDC-Brookdale Institute of Gerontology and Human Development in Israel. In conjunction with Esther Sobol, she conducts research on the evaluation of the quality of long-term care services, case management, and health promotion for the elderly. She is also researching the impact of home care in Israel on the well-being of the elderly, their families, and the service provision system. Esther Sobol, whose background is in social work, is also a researcher at the JDC-Brookdale Institute of Gerontology and Human Development. In addition to her work with Ms. Brodsky on evaluating the quality of long-term care services, case management, and health promotion for the elderly. Ms. Sobol is examining the elderly’s patterns of service utilization, particularly in the area of social care.     

Socioemotional selectivity and mental health among trauma survivors in old age

Empirical tests of socioemotional selectivity theory support the contention that the developmental trend in adulthood to focus increasingly on fewer, but emotionally significant, social partners is associated positively with psychological well-being. Tenets of the theory, however, also suggest conditions in which selectivity could instead lead to an increase in negative emotional experiences. In particular, if the socioemotional world of the individual includes emotional distress, selective focus on emotions and close relationships may detract from rather than enhance well-being. In the current study, we examined selectivity and associated well-being in Holocaust survivors, Japanese-American internment camp survivors, and comparably-aged people who lived through World War II but did not experience major trauma. We predicted that selectivity would relate to positive mental health in all groups except the Holocaust survivors who, on average, experience elevated levels of negative affect and social networks that include other survivors also experiencing distress. Results generally supported these hypotheses, and are discussed in light of individual and group differences in socioemotional ageing, as well as the implications for the generality of social developmental theories of adaptive functioning. He completed his undergraduate work at Stanford University and his Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania. His research focuses on emotion in adulthood and old age. He is currently the editor of theJournal of College Counseling and the Chair of the Council of Journal Editors for the American Counseling Association. His publications are mostly in the areas of multicultural psychology and the psychology of religion. She has published extensively about emotional, cognitive, and motivational changes with age and formulated socioemotional selectivity theory. Dr. Carstensen is currently Chair of the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Social Psychology and Aging. In 1998, she received Stanford University’s Deans Award for Distinguished Teaching.     

Physical health,subjective health,and psychological distress in older adults: Reciprocal relationships concurrently and over time

This study addresses the reciprocal associations between physical health (objectively assessed and self-rated) and psychological distress among older adults. Psychological distress (both depressive symptoms and anxiety level) made a significant independent contribution to the prediction of concurrent and future negative perception of one’s health, over and above objective health. As anxious and depressive components of psychological distress intensify, a negative outlook on life includes an increased negative view of one’s health among older adults. Conversely, negative subjective health independently predicted both depressive symptoms and anxiety level, concurrently and over time, over and above objective health. It thus appears that negative health appraisal heralds psychological distress, manifested as depressive symptoms and also anxiety among older adults. Taken together these findings draw the picture of a vicious circle of negative health appraisal leading to depression and anxiety, these in turn leading to further negative perception of health. His research and teaching activities are in the domain of psychogerontology, especially clinical geropsychology. His research interests include the treatment of depression, and reminiscence and autobiographical memory. Sabine Sèvre-Rousseau, Psy.D., defended her thesis in developmental psychology at the University of Paris V, Sorbonne. She was the coordinator of the mental health division of the Quebec Research Network on Aging during this study. She is also teaching psychology and statistical sciences at the Universities of Montreal and Sherbrooke. His research and teaching activities are in the domain of clinical geropsychology. In terms of research, he has a special interest for the etiology, assessment, and treatment of agitation and depression. Michel Préville, Ph.D., is associate professor at the Université de Sherbrooke, and Researcher at the Research Center on Aging, Scherbrooke Geriatric University Institute. He is director of the Mental Health Division of the Quebec Research Network on Aging.