Lining the mouth floor with prelaminated fascio-mucosal free flaps: clinical experience

Soft-tissue defects of the mouth floor need thin, foldable, and pliable tissues able to preserve local anatomy as well as chewing, phonation, and deglutition. The oral mucosa is made of a stratified, nonkeratinized, epithelium-secreting mucus, which lubricates the oral cavity and facilitates tongue movements. No flap exists that can reproduce the physiology of the oral mucosa better than the oral mucosa itself. Prefabrication of mucosal flaps may represent the best solution. Therefore, 10 consecutive cases of mouth floor cancer were treated with prelamination of the fascia antibrachialis with mucosal grafts obtained from the healthy cheek, and with subsequent transplantation 3 weeks later. A significant increase in mucosal graft surface was seen in all cases, with a mean size twice the original. All flaps healed uneventfully. Follow-up time ranged between 2-60 months (average, 26.6 months). Morphological and functional results were excellent. Tongue motility, speech intelligibility, and swallowing were reestablished in all treated cases. Mucosal prelamination of the forearm fascia is feasible and allows physiological reconstruction of oral cavity defects up to 6 x 4 cm.     

颊脂肪垫瓣在修复口腔颌面部缺损中的应用

目的探讨颊脂肪垫瓣在修复口腔颌面部缺损的应用和效果.方法将颊脂肪垫形成一蒂在后方的颊脂肪垫组织瓣转移至缺损区,在无张力下与创缘缝合,表面轻轻用碘仿纱布缝线包压法固定.用以修复口腔颌面部的良恶性肿瘤手术或损伤留下的缺损以及口腔上颌窦瘘共18例.其中修复腭部缺损2例,上颌骨切除后缺损7例,颊黏膜癌切除后缺损3例,颊部良性肿瘤切除后缺损4例,磨牙后区黏表癌切除后缺损1例,封闭拔牙后口腔上颌窦瘘1例.结果术后10 d去除碘仿纱布,见颊脂肪垫轻度水肿,2～4周后水肿明显消退,颊脂肪垫表面逐渐上皮化,6～8周内表面完全上皮化,3个月后再生黏膜与正常口腔黏膜相似.全部病例效果满意,无感染、坏死等并发症发生.结论带蒂颊脂肪垫瓣修复口腔颌面部缺损,方法简单、易行,效果满意,值得推广.     

Surgery for severe trismus in submucous fibrosis

Bilateral full thickness naso-labial flaps have been used successfully in three patients to give long-term relief of the severe trismus caused by oral submucous fibrosis. The flaps are set into defects created by incision of the oral mucosa. The postoperative rehabilitation compared favourably with other methods and we now advocate the technique for all cases of submucous fibrosis requiring correction of severe trismus.     

THE TEMPORALIS MUSCLE FLAP IN INTRAORAL RECONSTRUCTION

Background: Reconstruction following excision of intraoral tumours presents a challenge to the head and neck surgeon. The purpose of the present study was to review the authors' initial experience with the temporalis muscle flap. Methods : A retrospective review of the use of 21 temporalis muscle flaps in intraoral reconstruction at Christchurch Hospital was performed. The muscle was used to reconstruct defects of the oral tongue, tongue base, buccal mucosa, maxilla, soft palate, retromolar trigone and tonsillar region. Epithelial cover was provided by either split-skin grafting or ingrowth from adjacent mucosa. Results: One flap necrosed and one patient developed a wound haematoma requiring drainage. One patient developed a transient frontal weakness. The long-term functional results were excellent, except for one patient with slight tongue tethering. In one patient bilateral flaps were used to reconstruct a bilateral maxillectomy defect. Conclusion : The temporalis muscle flap is a useful option for reconstruction of moderate defects in the posterior oral cavity and oropharynx.     

Suitability of the anterolateral thigh perforator flap and the soleus perforator flap for intraoral reconstruction: a retrospective study

Perforator flaps are suitable for numerous reconstructive purposes. However, there are few data about their usefulness for intraoral reconstruction. We reviewed data of 101 patients who were reconstructed by two types of perforator flaps after oral cancer. Forty-six soleus perforator flaps and fifty-five anterolateral thigh (ALT) perforator flaps were performed. Procedural data and outcome measures were analyzed. One ALT and four soleus perforator flaps were lost, resulting in success rates of 97.8% and 91.4%, respectively. Soleus perforator flaps were more challenging due to short and small-caliber vessels, higher susceptibility to vascular spasm, and difficult prediction of the location of the vascular pedicle. All donor sites in both groups except one were closed directly, and their morbidity was negligible. Perforator flaps from both donor sites can be used for intraoral reconstruction with good functional results; however, despite primary thinning, the ALT flap can be voluminous in small and flat defects. Here, soleus perforator flaps adapt better to the oral mucosa. The ALT perforator flap is more reliable and serves as a safe alternative to the radial forearm flap.     

Reconstruction of through-and-through osteocutaneous defects of the mouth and face with subscapular system flaps

BACKGROUND: Major ablative surgery in the head and neck region may create composite defects involving the oral mucosa, bone and the overlying facial skin. The large surface area and the three-dimensional nature of these defects pose a difficult reconstructive challenge requiring adequate bone and large, positionally versatile skin flaps. PATIENTS AND METHODS: From September 1993 to May 2000, 19 patients with through-and-through osteocutaneous defects of the mouth and face were reconstructed with composite subscapular artery system flaps. The evaluated parameters included: (i) site and dimensions of the tissue defect; (ii) specific flap properties; and (iii) review of the recipient and donor site morbidity. RESULTS: 10 variants of scapular osteocutaneous flaps, eight latissimus dorsi with serratus anterior and rib osteo-myocutaneous flaps, and one combination of an osteocutaneous scapular and myocutaneous latissimus dorsi flap were used to reconstruct composite facial defects with mean dimensions of: skin 54.4 cm(2), mucosa 56.2 cm(2) and bone of 8.2 cm. Ischaemic complications occurred in three patients including one total flap failure and one failure of the bony component in previously irradiated patients. The third flap was successfully salvaged. No significant long-term donor site morbidity was noted. CONCLUSION: Composite flaps based on the subscapular artery system are a versatile reconstructive modality for large through-and-through defects of the mouth and face.     

Lip reconstruction with motor and sensory innervated composite flaps

Among the most elegant of recent flap refinements are innervated composite skin-muscle-mucosal flaps that restore the oral sphincter and carry both motor and sensory nerves. These flaps are based on the orbicularis oris, depressor anguli oris, and levator anguli oris perioral muscles of facial expression. Each flap can be dissected in a manner that allows transfer of the muscle into the oral sphincteric ring while restoring lip form and preserves the motor and sensory innervation. Each flap can be designed to carry skin and mucosa as needed for cover, lining, and vermilion reconstruction. Choice is determined by the specific anatomic lip defects. The orbicularis oris flap is most useful for large central defects of either the upper or lower lip. The depressor anguli oris flap is most useful for lateral lower lip defects or total lower lip reconstruction with bilateral flaps. The levator anguli oris is most useful for upper lip lateral element defects or for total upper lip restoration with bilateral flaps and an Abbe flap philtral reconstruction. Innervated composite flaps demonstrate substantial advantages when compared with preceding methods because of the superior function conveyed by the sphincter reconstruction and preserved motor and sensory nerve innervation.     

穿支游离皮瓣修复头颈肿瘤术后缺损

目的 探索更为理想的穿支游离皮瓣修复技术，运用于头颈肿瘤术后缺损。方法 2003年12月-2005年5月用于头颈部手术缺损修复的穿支游离皮瓣共14例（股前外侧皮瓣8例，腹壁下深动脉穿支皮瓣6例）。其中10例为复发后挽救手术，12例曾行放疗（平均63．5Gy）。头颈部肿瘤手术缺损部位分别为舌体3例，颊黏膜3例，口咽壁3例，舌根2例，颅底、头皮以及中面部各1例。受区供吻合动脉主要是甲状腺上动脉和面动脉；静脉为颈内静脉。结果 13例穿支游离皮瓣成功（93％），有1例穿支皮瓣因吻合侧的颈内静脉血栓形成导致皮瓣坏死。受区未发现其它明显并发症。供区均直接缝合关闭并一期愈合，未发现腹壁疝和运动受限等手术并发症。结论 穿支游离皮瓣保留了供区的肌肉、筋膜和神经，将供区的并发症降到最低限度，是头颈部缺损修复新的可靠技术。     

A compendium of intraoral flaps

Intraoral flaps are an excellent source of tissue for reconstruction after resection of small malignant tumors of the oral cavity, pharynx, and hypopharynx. The principal donor sites used are the tongue, buccal mucosa, and palate. Intraoral flaps enable rapid rehabilitation of deglutition and speech with minimal morbidity. They provide easily transferred, well-vascularized tissue from sites adjacent to the operative defects. These flaps permit closure without tension and obviate the need for more distant tissue transfers. Their use does not compromise the oncologic resection.     

Sensory recovery in melolabial flaps used for oral cavity reconstruction.

Current literature advocates the use of complex reinnervated free flaps to re-establish oral sensation after resection of oral cavity cancers. It has been demonstrated that noninnervated flaps can also re-establish sensation. We assessed the return of sensation in local melolabial flaps used in oral reconstruction. Seven patients underwent sensory testing at intervals from 12 to 18 months after surgery. The ability to distinguish differences in temperature was present in all patients. Spontaneous return of sensitivity to touch was documented by clinical testing in 71% of the patients. Less return of sensation was seen in flaps used for defects of the buccal mucosa relative to the floor of mouth. We conclude that spontaneous return of flap sensation does occur with local melolabial flaps. Given the simplicity of these procedures, melolabial flaps represent a reasonable alternative in floor-of-mouth reconstruction for selected patients.     

Reconstruction in the head and neck regions with free radial forearm flaps and split-rib bone grafts

Fifty patients with wound defects in the head and neck region underwent reconstruction with the free radial forearm flap. Mandible defects in 17 patients were reconstructed by split-rib bone grafts. Radiotherapy was administered to 44 patients preoperatively. The free flap was successful in 49 patients, and there was one case of partial flap necrosis. The free flap is soft, thin, and movable. The split-rib bone graft was successful in 15 patients, and there was one case of partial graft necrosis and one case of complete necrosis. Postoperative complications were decreased by 50 percent when compared with the complication rate when split ribs were covered by forehead flaps, deltopectoral flaps, or oral mucosa. Finally, the functional and cosmetic results were excellent.     

颈部带蒂组织瓣修复口腔颌面部肿瘤切除术后软组织缺损

目的介绍4种颈部带蒂组织瓣修复口腔颌面部肿瘤切除术后软组织缺损的方法。方法1982年1月~2003年12月,172例口腔颌面部肿瘤,其中口腔黏膜鳞癌165例,唾液腺癌7例。I期21例,Ⅱ期116例,Ⅲ期35例。病变主要部位:舌59例、颊黏膜55例、下颌牙龈26例、口底25例、腮腺4例及口咽区3例。肿瘤切除术与颈淋巴结清扫术后,应用颈阔肌皮瓣修复45例,胸锁乳突肌皮瓣修复59例,舌骨下肌皮瓣修复60例,颏下岛状瓣修复8例;切取肌皮瓣皮岛范围2.5 cm×5.0 cm~5.0 cm×8.0 cm。结果术后153例皮瓣全部成活,其中舌骨下肌皮瓣55例,颈阔肌皮瓣40例,胸锁乳突肌皮瓣52例,颏下岛状瓣6例;完全坏死11例,部分(皮岛1/4~1/2)坏死8例。4种皮瓣成功率分别为91.67%、88.89%、88.14%和75%。101例获随访3~11年,平均5.7年,原位复发18例,颈部复发4例,远处转移2例;3年生存84例,占83.17%。结论颈部带蒂组织瓣适用于修复口腔颌面部肿瘤切除后中小型软组织缺损。     

Reconstruction of medium-sized defects of oral commissure by combining double full-thickness cheek rhomboidal flaps and a small lip switch flap

Reconstruction of oral commissure defects aims at securing oral competence and providing an acceptable appearance. The methods described by using either a cross lip flap or a flap from the adjacent cheek skin and mucosa may not be able to achieve such goals if each method is used on its own. We have combined double full-thickness cheek rhomboidal flaps with a small lip switch flap from the remaining lip segment to reconstruct medium-sized full-thickness defects of the oral commissure, following tumor excision in 7 patients. The functional and aesthetic outcomes were assessed by the evaluation of 3 parameters under each category. Each parameter received a score of good, moderate, or poor. Six patients had a good overall functional score. Microstomia was noted only in 1 patient. The overall aesthetic score for all the 7 patients was moderate. In conclusion, reconstruction of medium-sized commissural defects by the present technique achieves adequate oral competence and a satisfactory cosmetic result.     

Double free flap reconstruction of through-and-through oromandibulofacial defects

Through-and-through oromandibulofacial resection defects are extensive reconstructive challenges. These composite defects consist of five components that have to be addressed separately in order for the reconstruction to be functionally and aesthetically successful, including the oral mucosa, bone defect, external skin, potential deadspace obliteration and volume replacement. Single osteocutaneous flaps or single soft tissue free flaps inevitably lead to compromise in at least one of these areas. More recently, in the last two decades, double free flaps have been introduced as a tailored solution to this problem, allowing the comprehensive reconstruction of each separate component. We review the current evidence regarding the use of double free flaps in such defects and summarise our approach in our institute’s experience of over 130 cases. Although we consider the double free flap combination of the anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap and fibula osteoseptocutaneous flap to be the optimal reconstructive method in through-and-through oromandibulofacial defects, higher levels of evidence are required to fully justify their use in terms of complication profile, functional and aesthetic outcomes.     

Three-layer repair of nasoseptal defects.

PURPOSE: This article demonstrates technique and results of a 3-layer repair of nasoseptal defects using bilateral bipedicled advancement flaps and an autogenous cartilage graft. METHOD: After an extensive bilateral elevation of the mucosa from the entire septum, the nasal dome and the nasal floor bipedicled advancement flaps are created. The mucosal defects are sutured and an autogenous cartilage graft is interposed between the sutured mucosal flaps. RESULTS: Until now this technique has been applied in 403 patients. The success rate (complete closure) was 92.5%. Thirty-four patients redeveloped defects; 28 were <5 mm and did not cause complaints. CONCLUSION: Results show that the described technique is a most reliable method with the following advantages: 1 stage procedure, no visible scars, high success rate, and low complication rate. In case of an incomplete closure, the redeveloped defect will generally be considerably smaller than the original one and asymptomatic.     

Transverse fascial suspension with muscle bow traction: advantages for full-thickness lip reconstruction involving the oral commissure using free flap

Large full-thickness oral defects involving the oral commissure continue to be a challenge for reconstructive surgeons. Although local flaps are the best option for full-thickness lip reconstruction, they are unavailable for large defects. In particular, recent advances in microsurgery have extended the available surgical options using free flaps, but for full-thickness large oral defects involving the oral commissure, it is still difficult to obtain good function and competence. The major disadvantages are the drooping and loosening of the reconstructed lip and the difficulty in restoring a natural oral commissure. We present two cases of lip reconstruction for full-thickness large defects involving the oral commissure in which free flaps with the muscle bow traction method were used to overcome these problems. In case 1, the lip was reconstructed with a free radial forearm-palmaris longus tendon composite flap. The tendon was sutured onto the orbicularis oris stumps. In case 2, the lip was reconstructed with a free anterolateral thigh flap including the fascia lata. A fascial strip in the flap was sutured to the residual orbicularis muscles. In each case, additional nonvascularised fascia lata was harvested and suspended the reconstructed lip in transverse direction as a muscle bow traction method. Both patients achieved good oral competence without medial deviation of the oral commissure and were able to resume a regular diet without drooping and loosening of the reconstructed lip. For large full-thickness oral defects involving the oral commissure, transverse fascial suspension with muscle bow traction is useful for functional and cosmetic reconstruction.     

颏下岛状瓣修复口腔癌术后缺损的临床应用

目的:探讨颏下岛状瓣修复口腔癌术后缺损的临床效果。方法:2010年6月～2011年12月收治的8例口腔癌患者,其中舌癌5例,舌根癌1例,口咽癌1例,下颌牙龈癌1例,全部采用颏下岛状瓣修复根治术后缺损,皮瓣最小5.5cm×4cm,最大8cm×4cm。结果:8例患者中6例皮瓣成功,2例坏死。患者言语、吞咽功能均正常,颈部瘢痕隐蔽,活动正常,外形满意。结论:颏下岛状瓣制备简单,成活率高,适合同期修复舌癌口咽癌及舌根癌术后缺损。     

Superiorly or inferiorly based "islanded" nasolabial flap for buccal mucosa defects reconstruction.

PURPOSE: This article describes the successful use of superiorly and inferiorly based subcutaneous pedicled flaps in the reconstruction of defects of the buccal mucosa by raising the flaps as skin islands, relying on a pedicle of subcutaneous tissue. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Nine procedures were performed on 9 patients for reconstruction of small to moderate defects of the central portion of the buccal mucosa. Four patients underwent superiorly based and 5 patients underwent inferiorly based "islanded" nasolabial flap reconstruction. RESULTS: All flaps healed without evidence of infection, dehiscence, or necrosis. The choice of superiorly or inferiorly based "islanded" nasolabial flap did not affect the success of the final result; instead it helped decrease the trismus associated with these resections. CONCLUSIONS: The inferiorly or superiorly based nasolabial "islanded" flaps provide reliable coverage of small and intermediate sized defects of the buccal mucosa, improving mouth opening.     

小腿外侧复合组织瓣移植修复口腔颌面肿瘤切除后的缺损

目的评价小腿外侧复合组织瓣移植修复口腔颌面肿瘤切除后缺损的临床应用价值. 方法 1999年11月～2002年12月,对28例口腔颌面部肿瘤患者术后应用小腿外侧复合组织瓣游离移植,修复骨及软组织缺损.手术采用血管吻合、单叶皮瓣和坚固内固定等恢复口腔颌面缺损器官的形态及完整性.其中21例为带腓骨的腓骨皮瓣移植,7例为携带肌肉的腓骨肌皮瓣移植.采用游离小腿外侧皮瓣,大小3.0 cm×5.5 cm～8.0 cm×12.0 cm,腓骨长度5.5～16.0 cm.有3例同期植入种植体共5枚. 结果术后24例成功,3例部分皮瓣坏死,1例肌皮瓣坏死.3例同期植入的5枚种植体均达到良好的骨整合效果,并已行上部义齿修复.26例获随访1～36个月,平均18.5个月,23例患者面部外形恢复、张闭口及语音功能达到满意或较满意. 结论小腿外侧复合组织瓣有充足的可供取用的组织量,尤其是对同时伴有大量骨缺损患者.且具备血管蒂长、管径粗、易于吻合,以及供区隐蔽等优点,是修复重建口腔颌面部软硬组织缺损可选择的方法之一.